Chancellor Melissa Nobles’ address to MIT’s undergraduate Class of 2025

Below is the text of Melissa Nobles’ remarks, as prepared for delivery today.

Wow, thank you Emily and Andrew! Emily Jin on vocals and Andrew Li on saxophone, and their fellow musicians!

Class of 2025! Look at you, you’re looking really good in your regalia! It’s your graduation day! You did it! Congratulations!

And congratulations to all of your loved ones, all of the people who helped support you.

Your parents, your brothers and sisters, your aunties and your uncles, and your friends. This is a special day for them too. They are so proud of you!

A warm welcome to the loved ones who are here with us today on Killian Court — they’ve come here from all over to celebrate you!

And a special shout out to those who are watching from afar, wishing they could be here with you in person!

Class of 2025, you’ve made a lot of memories during your time here: from classes to crushes, from the East Campus REX build to the Simmons ball pit to Next Haunt, from UROPs to the Hobby Shop, and from the Outfinite to the Infinite!

So, I’d like to take you back to the fall of 2021, when you arrived here at MIT.

You traveled from all parts of this country and the world — from 62 countries, to be exact — and landed right here in Cambridge. Together, you became MIT’s Class of 2025.

And you arrived on campus — all bright-eyed and beaver-tailed — after missing a lot of in-person high school rituals, a lot of the high school experience. So, you were extra eager for college, and, more specifically, super excited to be MIT students!

Although the campus was officially fully open for the first time since the Covid shutdown — students, staff, and faculty were all here in person, with Zoom taking a back seat to meeting in real life — there were still a lot of protocols in place.

You had to get through all the Covid tests because we were still testing. Do you remember those Ziploc bags?

You swabbed and submitted attestations because you wanted the keys to unlock doors to labs, classrooms, and all the experiences that make MIT, MIT.

And once you gained access, you discovered a campus that was shiny and welcoming, yet dusty after being mostly empty for a long while. And there was no manual for how to reanimate this place.

You didn’t flinch.

You chose MIT because you like to solve problems, and your inner beaver came out to bring the campus back to life, to make it a home.

You were curious, you surveyed the landscape, and you started to dig into the past in order to build your future.

You sought out seniors, the Class of 2022, to read you in, to show you the ropes, and they really came through for you. They felt the urgency of their limited time left on campus, and they taught you “how to MIT.”

You also pored through archival records of clubs, soaking up history to guide you forward. You filled in the gaps by speaking with faculty and staff and alums. You evaluated the options, decided what you wanted to revive and what you wanted to scrap.

And true to your nature as MIT students, you launched new stuff. You innovated and invented.

And you built communities, from FPOPs and orientation through 8.01, 18.02, your HASS classes, and your p-set groups.

You built communities in your dorms and in your sororities and fraternities.

You built communities through your sports, through your hobbies and through the arts.

You built communities all across campus.

And you learned that building communities is not always easy and quick. It takes effort, patience, and a willingness to listen to and learn from others.

But, in the end, it is so worth it because you’ve met and made friends with really interesting people. Some with similar backgrounds and others from very different backgrounds. And from that interesting and diverse group, you’ve identified your crew — the people with whom you’ve shared not only interests — but your dreams, your fears, your concerns, laughs, and tears. You’ve made real connections — connections that lead to a lifetime of friendship.

And over the past four years, right before our eyes, you’ve demonstrated the enduring value and power of higher education to change lives.

Throughout your time at MIT, you ideated, prototyped, and tested. You created new knowledge, waded through ambiguity, worked collaboratively, and, of course, you optimized.

Now, on your graduation day, we send you on your way with enormous pride and hope.

But at the same time, we are sending you out into the world at a very difficult and challenging time. It’s a time when we all are being asked to focus on traditions that we should honor and defend. It’s also a time calling on us to create new traditions, better suited to human thriving in this century.

It’s a time when the issues are big, the answers are complex, the stakes are high, and the paths are uncharted.

But, Class of 2025, you are prepared to face these daunting conditions. In the words of one of your classmates: MIT taught the Class of 2025 to have “confidence in your competence.”

You are ready to assess your environment, diagnose what is stale and what is broken, learn from history, apply your talents and skills, and create new knowledge.

You are ready to tackle the toughest of problems! You are ready to shape the future.   

And while you are doing so, I ask that you keep MIT’s values and mission at the center of your efforts: to be bold and imaginative in tackling these big problems and to do so with compassion and generosity.

Now, more than ever, we — meaning the world’s people — need you to lean in.

Once again, Congratulations Class of 2025!

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Mary Robinson urges MIT School of Architecture and Planning graduates to “find a way to lead”

“Class of 2025, are you ready?”

This was the question Hashim Sarkis, dean of the MIT School of Architecture and Planning, posed to the graduating class at the school’s Advanced Degree Ceremony at Kresge Auditorium on May 29. The response was enthusiastic applause and cheers from the 224 graduates from the departments of Architecture and Urban Studies and Planning, the Program in Media Arts and Sciences, and the Center for Real Estate.

Following his welcome to an audience filled with family and friends of the graduates, Sarkis introduced the day’s guest speaker, whom he cited as the “perfect fit for this class.” Recognizing the “international rainbow of graduates,” Sarkis welcomed Mary Robinson, former president of Ireland and head of the Mary Robinson Foundation — Climate Justice to the podium. Robinson, a lawyer by training, has had a wide-ranging career that began with elected positions in Ireland followed by leadership roles in global causes for justice, human rights, and climate change.

Robinson laced her remarks with personal anecdotes from her career, from with earning a master’s in law at nearby Harvard University in 1968 — a year of political unrest in the United States — to founding The Elders in 2007 with world leaders: former South African President Nelson Mandela, anti-apartheid and human rights activist Desmond Tutu, and former U.S. President Jimmy Carter.

She described an “early lesson” in recounting her efforts to reform the laws of contraception in Ireland at the beginning of her career in the Irish legislature. Previously, women were not prescribed birth control unless they were married and had irregular menstrual cycles certified by their physicians. Robinson received thousands of letters of condemnation and threats that she would destroy the country of Ireland if she would allow contraception to be more broadly available. The legislation introduced was successful despite the “hate mail” she received, which was so abhorrent that her fiancé at the time, now her husband, burned it. That experience taught her to stand firm to her values.

“If you really believe in something, you must be prepared to pay a price,” she told the graduates.

In closing, Robinson urged the class to put their “skills and talent to work to address the climate crisis,” a problem she said she came late to in her career.

“You have had the privilege of being here at the School of Architecture and Planning at MIT,” said Robinson. “When you leave here, find ways to lead.”

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Hank Green urges the Class of 2025 to work on “everyday solvable problems of normal people”

An energetic OneMIT Commencement ceremony today featured calls for MIT’s newest graduates to have a positive impact on society while upholding the Institute’s core values of open inquiry and productive innovation.

“Orient yourself not just toward the construction and acquisition of new tools, but to the needs of people,” said science communicator Hank Green, in the event’s keynote remarks. He urged MIT’s newest graduates to focus their work on the “everyday solvable problems of normal people,” even if it is not always the easiest or most obvious course of action.

“Because people are so complex and messy, some of you may be tempted to build around them and not for them,” Green continued. “But remember to ask yourself where value and meaning originate, where they come from.” He then provided one answer: “Value and meaning come from people.”

Green is a hugely popular content creator and YouTuber whose work often focuses on science and STEM issues, and who has built, with his brother, John, the educational media company Complexly. Their content, including the channels SciShow and CrashCourse, is widely used in schools and has tallied over 2 billion views. Green, a cancer survivor, is also writing a book explaining the biology of cancer.

The ceremony also featured remarks from MIT President Sally A. Kornbluth, who delivered the traditional “charge” to new graduates while reflecting on the values of MIT and the value it brings society.

“We believe scientific discovery is deeply valuable and inspiring in itself — and we know that it’s absolutely essential for driving innovation and delivering new tools, technologies, treatments, and cures,” she said.

Kornbluth challenged graduates to be “ambassadors” for the open-minded inquiry and collaborative work that marks everyday life at MIT.

“I need you all to become ambassadors for the way we think and work and thrive at MIT,” she said. “Ambassadors for scientific thinking and scientific discovery. For thoughtful research of every kind — here, and at universities across the country. For the importance of research to the advancement of our nation — and our species. And ambassadors for the limitless possibilities when we understand, appreciate and magnify each other’s talent and potential, in a thriving global community.”

Kornbluth also elaborated on the core elements of the work MIT has always pursued.

“At MIT, we allow a lot of room for disagreement, whether the subject is scientific, personal or political,” Kornbluth said. Still, she noted, “in this disconcerting time, as we prepare to send the Class of 2025 out into the world, I want to celebrate three fundamental things we do agree on — the rock-solid foundation of our shared work and understanding.”

The first of these, Kornbluth said, is that “we believe in the beauty and power of the scientific method. … It’s designed to root out error, protect us against our own biases and assumptions, and provide a systematic way to turn facts we cannot see at first into knowledge we can act on. It’s hard to imagine anything more useful than that.” Secondly, she said, in a similar vein, “we believe in the beauty and power of fundamental scientific discovery.”

A third element, Kornbluth observed, is that “we all know that we’re sharper, more rigorous, more curious, more inventive and more likely to achieve breakthrough results when we work together with brilliant people, across a broad spectrum of backgrounds, perspectives and viewpoints, from across the country and all around the world. You don’t find the big ideas in an echo chamber.”

Kornbluth added: “I want to say something I’ve said repeatedly: MIT would not be MIT without our international students.”

MIT’s Commencement celebrations are taking place this week, from May 28 through May 30. The OneMIT Commencement Ceremony is an Institute-wide event, held in MIT’s Killian Court and streamed online. MIT’s undergraduates, as well as advanced degree students in its five schools and the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing, also have additional, separate ceremonies in which graduates receive their degrees individually.The OneMIT event also featured remarks from Massachusetts Governor Maura Healey, who said she was “incredibly proud” of the graduates and the Institute itself.

“You stand for the qualities that make Massachusetts special: a passion for learning and discovery that is so powerful it changes the world,” Healey said. “Curing disease. Inventing technologies. Solving tough problems for communities, organizations, and people all around the globe. Making lives better and powering our economies. Thanks to you, Massachusetts is No. 1 for innovation and education.” She added: “MIT’s contributions to our knowledge economy — and our culture of discovery — are a pillar of Massachusetts’ national and global leadership.”

Speaking of the economic impact of MIT-linked businesses, Healey had an additional suggestion for the graduates: “Put your talents to work in Massachusetts, a place where you are valued, respected, and surrounded by incredibly talented, engaged innovators and investors. Make your discoveries here. Found your startups here. Scale your companies here.”

She even quipped, “We put forward some pretty good incentives through our economic development legislation and we’ll help you find a way to spend that. Just reach out to my economic development team.”

Green imparted general life advice as well.

“One of the problems you will solve is how to find joy in an imperfect world,” Green said in his Commencement address. “And you might struggle with not feeling productive, unless and until you accept that your own joy can be one of the things you produce.”

On another note, Green added, “Ideas do not belong in your head. They can’t help anyone in there. I sometimes see people become addicted to their good idea. … They can’t bring themselves to expose it to the imperfection of reality. Stop waiting. Get the ideas out. … You may fail, but while you fail, you will build new tools.”

Throughout his speech, Green emphasized the humanitarian qualities of MIT’s students. This past semester, after being named Commencement speaker, he sent the graduating class a survey that about half of the class responded to.

The survey included the question, “What gives you hope?” In his speech, Green said the many of the responses involved other people. Or, as he characterized it, “People who care. People who focus on improving life in their communities. People who are standing up for what they believe in. People who see big problems and have the determination to fix them.”

The OneMIT ceremony began with the annual alumni parade, this time featuring the undergraduate class of 1975, while the Killian Court Brass Ensemble, conducted by Kenneth Amis, played the processional entry music.

The Chaplain to the Institite, Thea Keith-Lucas, delivered the invocation, while the campus a capella group, the Chorallaries of MIT, sang “The Star Spangled Banner,” and later, the school song, “In praise of MIT,” as well as another Institute anthem, “Take Me Back to Tech.”

Despite many uncertainties facing higher education, the MIT students, families, friends, and community members present reveled in a festive moment, celebrating the achievements of the graduates. A total of 1,158 undergraduate and 2,593 graduate students received MIT diplomas this academic year.

“There’s only one way to get through MIT,” Kornbluth quipped. “The hard way.” 

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Commencement address by Hank Green

Below is the text of Hank Green’s Commencement remarks as prepared for delivery on May 29.

I don’t really do imposter syndrome, that’s where you feel like you don’t belong. I have a superior syndrome called “Hahaha I fooled them again” syndrome where I know that I don’t belong, but I also am very pleased that I have once again cleverly convinced you that I do.

I, a man you might very well know as a tiktoker, a man who recently blind-ranked AI company logos by how much they look like buttholes, have snuck into giving MIT’s Commencement speech. And I can admit this because you can’t kick me off now, I’ve already started speaking! It would be weird if you stopped … but still, I’m going to try to do a good job.

Hello and thank you very much to everybody for welcoming me out, all the lovely people up here, the president, the governor, the alumni, Class of 75, and also of course, thank you especially to a class of extremely impressive charismatic and attractive students of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology graduating Class of 2025.

To express my thanks: The average human skeleton has more than 25,000 calories. More than half of your bones are in your hands and feet, and all together your skeleton contains enough oxygen atoms that, if you freed them, you could produce around 24 hours of breathable air.

Those were some of my best bone facts, and I assume that good bone facts are a totally normal way for humans to show gratitude.

I gave you my very best bone facts because I owe an extra debt of gratitude to you, the Class of 2025, because more than half of you filled out a survey I sent you! I assume you did it late at night while you should have been p-setting, whatever that is, but instead you did this.

And I have loved looking through your responses and learning a little bit about you, and a little bit from you.

One of the things asked you what the most MIT thing you did at MIT was, and this was my favorite section to read.

Some of it was definitely not meant for me to understand, like several of you counted up all the smoots on the Harvard Bridge.

Whatever that means … good work.

One of you was Tim the Beaver. Another tried to impress a date with train facts.

I see you. Same … but with bones.

A lot, and I mean a lot of you simply said the word “hack,” and the lack of specificity there, I have to say, does make me feel like whatever you did, the statute of limitations has not yet kicked in.

But by far the most common beginning of a sentence in this section was “I built…” You built robots and bridges and incubators and startups and Geiger counters and a remote-controlled shopping cart and a ukelele and an eight-foot-wide periodic table. Y’all built … a lot.

And that is something I found reassuring. We are going to need to do a lot of building.

I took a look at your shoes as you were coming, but it turns out I didn’t need to see them to know I wouldn’t want to be in them.

I think the only people jealous of you right now is the Class of 2026 because I’m sure things will be even more screwed up by the time they’re sitting where you are. But what a terribly messy time to be graduating from college. The attacks on speech, on science, on higher education, on trans rights, on the federal workforce, on the rule of law … they’re coming from inside the house.

Meanwhile, the world is getting hotter faster. And the sudden acceleration in the abilities of artificial intelligence, communication, and biotechnology promise huge opportunities, and massive disruption.

So, if I were you, I would want some advice! But as previously mentioned, I am a TikTok-er who will now forever be known as the first person to ever say the word “butthole” during an MIT commencement speech. So the advice — some of it — is going to come from you. I asked you, in my survey, what you would say to your classmates from a stage like the one I am now on. And here’s a selection.

One of your classmates wrote:

I always forget which Green brother is Hank and which is John!

There is no one definition of success. The idea you have in your head of what success is, it’s going to change, and you should let it.

Is one of your classmates 45 years old?

And here’s another 45-year-old hiding among you:

Open a Roth IRA.

Jeez! Did your dad fill out my survey for you? Seriously though, you should.

Here’s one of my real favorites:

Collaborate and help each other, be brave in reaching out, and be forgiving in your interactions.

Even if it probably won't work, try anyway.

Don’t start with the solution, start with the problem.

Now a lot of you might be thinking right now: Did he just make us write his Commencement speech for him? And the answer to that is, well, at least you know that Claude didn’t write it.

I’ve had a good time here focusing on the ludicrous aspects of my career, and I do want to emphasize its ludicriousness.

I’ve done TikTok dances to Elmo remixes, and I’ve also published two best-selling science fiction novels. I’ve written fart listicles, and I’ve interviewed presidents. I’ve made multiple videos about giraffe sex, and I’ve sold multiple companies. I helped build an educational media company that provides videos for free to everyone with an internet connection, and our content is used in most American schools.

And yes, that was the section I put in so your parents could feel better about me being here. I left it as long as I could.

I am good at having an idea I believe in and then just doing it, consequences be damned, and that has served me well, though it has not always been relaxing.

And I did that all on the uncertain and rapidly changing ground of online video and social media over the last 20 years. So perhaps I do have something to say to a class of graduates heading out into an uncertain and unstable world.

If I could attribute my success, whatever it is, to anything besides luck, it’s that I literally can’t stop believing that there is any better use of time than learning something new.

And curiosity doesn’t just expand the number of tools you have and how well you’re able to use them, it expands your understanding of the problem space.

And so maybe the advice is very simple. Just be curious about the world and you’ll have everything you need for the future and, look, it is almost that simple.

There’s a really important question I asked y’all in my survey that I haven’t mentioned yet. I asked, “What’s giving you hope?”

And though one of you wrote “Macallan 12,” most of you, in your response, talked entirely about people: my friends, my family, my peers, over and over.

People who care. People who focus on improving life in their communities. People who are standing up for what they believe in. People who see big problems and have the determination to fix them.

At a school like MIT, I imagine that the focus can definitely be on the building and less on the people. This is an institute of technology, not of humanities. But I read the humanity in your answers.

And this brings me back to the simplicity of curiosity leading you both toward understanding problems and acquiring new tools. Because your curiosity is not out of your control. You decide how you orient it, and that orientation is going to affect the entire rest of your life. It may be the single most important factor in your career.

And my guess is that it’s going to be really easy to be focused on the problem of just building ever more powerful tools. That’s exciting stuff and also it can be surprisingly uncomplicated. But even though the problem space is much bigger than just “build bigger tools,” it is surprisingly easy to simply never notice that.

The most powerful mechanisms that steer our focus are … I’m just going to say this … not always designed for our best interests, or the best interests of our world. Social content platforms are great at steering our curiosities and they are, often, designed to make us afraid, to keep us oriented toward impossible problems, or toward the hottest rifts in society.

Meanwhile, the capitalist impulse is very good at keeping us oriented toward the problems that can be most easily monetized, and that means an over-weighting toward the problems that the most powerful and wealthy people are interested in solving.

If we let ourselves be oriented only by those forces, guess what problems we will not pay any attention to. All of the everyday solvable problems of normal people.

I desperately hope that you remain curious about our world’s intensely diverse and massive problem space. Solveable problems! That are not being addressed because our world does not orient us toward them. If you can control your obsessions, you will not just be unstoppable, you will leave this world a much better place than you found it.

This is not about choosing between financial stability and your ideals. No. There is money to be made in these spaces. This is simply about who you include in your problem space, about what you choose to be curious about.

So with that in mind, here’s my advice, from my heart and from my experience.

First, don’t eat grass.

Second, more importantly, one of the problems you will solve is how to find joy in an imperfect world. And you might struggle with not feeling productive unless and until you accept that your own joy can be one of the things you produce.

Third, ideas do not belong in your head. They can’t help anyone in there. I sometimes see people become addicted to their good idea. They love it so much, they can’t bring themselves to expose it to the imperfection of reality. Stop waiting. Get the ideas out. You may fail, but while you fail, you will build new tools.

And fourth, because people are so complex and messy, some of you may be tempted to build around them and not for them. But remember to ask yourself where value and meaning come from, because they don’t come from banks or tech or cap tables. They come from people.

People things are the hardest work, but also often the most important work. Orient yourself not just toward the construction and acquisition of new tools, but to the needs of people, and that include you, it includes your friends and your family. I think we can sometimes feel so powerful and like the world is so big that throwing a birthday party or making a playlist for a friend can seem too insignificant when placed against the enormity of AI and climate change and the erosion of democracy. But those thoughts alienate you from the reality of human existence, from your place as a builder not just of tools, but of meaning. And that’s not just about impact and productivity and problem solving, it is about living a life.

Do. Not. Forget. how special and bizarre it is to get to live a human life. It took 3 billion years for the Earth to go from single-celled life forms to you. That’s more than a quarter of the life of the entire universe. Something very special and strange is happening on this planet and it is you.

The greatest thing you build in your life will be yourself, and trust me on this you are not done yet, I know I’m not. But what you will be building is not just a toolkit. You will be building a person, and you will be doing it for people.

When I asked you what you did at MIT, you said you built, but when I asked you what was giving you hope, you did not say “buildings” you said “people.” So, to the graduating Class of 2025, go forth, for yourself, for others, and for this beautiful, bizarre world.

Thank you.

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3 Questions: Hank Green on science, communication, and curiosity

Hank Green, prolific content creator and YouTuber whose work has often focused on science and STEM-oriented topics, is delivering today’s OneMIT Commencement address. Green, along with his brother John, has built the educational media company Complexly, racking up over 2 billion views for the their content, including the channels SciShow and CrashCourse. MIT News talked with Green in advance of his commencement remarks.

Q: MIT’s president, Sally Kornbluth, often talks about the value of curiosity. How much of curiosity do you think is natural, or alternately, how do you keep cultivating your sense of curiosity?

A: There’s a line in my talk today, something like, if I could attribute my success to anything besides luck, it is always believing that there is no better use of a day than learning something new. And I don’t know where that came from. I feel like everybody is like that. I have an 8-year-old son and he’s like that. My wife texted me last night and said, “He wants to know what dark matter is.” Well, wouldn’t we all?

I don’t know exactly know how to cultivate that, but I do have strategies for orienting [toward] that. … The reality is that it’s very easy to orient my curiosity toward what would make me the most money or what makes me feel better than other people. I’m very aware of this as founder and host of SciShow, that people might watch because they want to feel superior to people who don’t know stuff. And that’s a motivation, and at least it’s oriented toward knowing more stuff, but it’s not the best motivation. I think one of the great powers people can have is being able to orient your curiosity around what your values are, and how you’d like to see the world change. And that’s something that I have worked a lot on.

Q: It seems like you’re not just learning about new things, but also, in the process, aren’t there a lot of new challenges in figuring out how to communicate things best?

A: Tons! I mean the thing about it is that the communications landscape changes very fast. Five years ago, TikTok wasn’t really a thing. When I heard about it, I thought, “You can’t do science communication in a minute. That’s impossible. All you can do is dance videos.” And then I saw people doing it and said, “Well, you can.”

I’m also working on a book-length science communication project right now. When I say book-length, it’s a book about the biology of cancer. And that process, it doesn’t end there, but for me that’s the largest, longest communication you can do.

[But alternately] my friend Charlie made one of the first science TikToks I saw. It’s a skit about how vaccines work, where one character was a vaccine and one was an immune cell. That was probably 30 seconds long and it’s probably better than any way I would have communicated about vaccines in the midst of the Covid epidemic on the new platform, pre-bunking fear about vaccines from the very beginning, very simply explaining what they are in a way that’s very accessible and not going to turn anybody off.

Q: What are you talking about in your remarks today?

A: Yeah, I mean we are in a super-weird moment with regard to the amount of power humanity has. We’ve been in moments like this before, where the amount of power at our fingertips increases exponentially very quickly. The nuclear age is the big one in terms of the speed of that change. But it feels like biotechnology and AI and communications are all adding up to being a really big deal.

The thing I kept coming back to was — I didn’t put this in the talk, but it inspired the talk: Okay, so we had a period of time where humans powered the world through muscle. And now human muscle is not the [most] important part of how we build. Intelligence and dexterity are important, but in terms of calories expended, [that’s done] by machines. If we end up in a world where that [also] becomes more the case for intelligence, what do we still have a monopoly on? A lot of people would still answer that question with “Nothing,” I guess.

I think that’s really wrong. I think we’ll still have a near-monopoly on meaning, and what we mean to each other. So, what I wanted to get at is, all the stuff that we do, all the things that we build, at the root, the base, we do it for people in some way. It might be a playlist for your friend, or the Human Genome Project, but all of that, we’re doing for people. And so keeping [ourselves] oriented toward people, and not building around them as an obstacle but building for them, is the thing I’ve wanted to be focused on. 

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MIT mechanical engineering course invites students to “build with biology”

MIT course 2.797/2.798 (Molecular Cellular and Tissue Biomechanics) teaches students about the role that mechanics plays in biology, with a focus on biomechanics and mechanobiology: “Two words that sound similar, but are actually very different,” says Ritu Raman, the Eugene Bell Career Development Professor of Tissue Engineering in the MIT Department of Mechanical Engineering.

Biomechanics, Raman explains, conveys the mechanical properties of biological materials, where mechanobiology teaches students how cells feel and respond to forces in their environment. “When students take this class, they're getting a really unique fusion of not only fundamentals of mechanics, but also emerging research in biomechanics and mechanobiology,” says Raman.

Raman and Peter So, professor of mechanical engineering, co-teach the course, which So says offers a concrete application of some of the basic theory. “We talk about some of the applications and why the fundamental concept is important.”

The pair recently revamped the curriculum to incorporate hands-on lab-learning through the campus BioMakers space and the Safety, Health, Environmental Discovery Lab (SHED) bioprinting makerspace. This updated approach invites students to “build with biology” and see how cells respond to forces in their environment in real time, and it was a change that was seemingly welcomed from the start, with the first offering yielding the course’s largest-ever enrollment.

“Many concepts in biomechanics and mechanobiology can be hard to conceptualize because they happen at length scales that we can't typically visualize,” Raman explains. “In the past, we've done our best to convey these ideas via pictures, videos, and equations. The lab component adds another dimension to our teaching methods. We hope that students seeing firsthand how living cells sense and respond to their environment helps the concepts sink in deeper and last longer in their memories.”

Makerspaces, which are located throughout the campus, offer tools and workspace for MIT community members to invent, prototype, and bring ideas to life. The Institute has over 40 design/build/project spaces that include facilities for 3D printing, glassblowing, wood and metal working, and more. The BioMakers space welcomes students engaged in hands-on bioengineering projects. SHED similarly leverages cutting-edge technologies across disciplines, including a new space focused on 3D bio-printing.

Kamakshi Subramanian, a cross-registered Wellesley College student, says she encountered a polymer model in a prior thermodynamics class, but wondered how she’d apply it. Taking this course gave her a new frame of reference. “I was like, ‘Why are we doing this?’ … and then I came here and I was like, ‘OK, thinking about entropy in this way is actually useful.’”

Raman says there’s a special kind of energy and excitement associated with being in a lab versus staying in the classroom. “It reminds me of going on a field trip when I was in elementary school,” she says, adding that seeing that energy in students during the course’s first run inspired the instructors to expand lab offerings even further in the second offering.  

“[In addition to] one main lab on the biomechanics of muscle contraction, we have added a second lab where students visit the SHED makerspace to learn about 3D bio-printing,” she says. “We have also incorporated an optional hands-on component into the final project, [and] most students in the class are taking advantage of this extra lab time to try exciting curiosity-driven experiments at the intersection of biology and mechanics.”

Raman and So, who were joined in teaching the second iteration of the course this semester by professor of biological engineering Mark Bathe, say they hope to continue to build the amount of hands-on time incorporated into the class in the coming years.

Ayi Agboglo, a Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology graduate student who is studying the physical properties of red blood cells relevant to sickle cell disease (SCD), says taking the course introduced him to studies where mathematical models extracted mechanical properties of red blood cell (RBC) membranes in the context of SCD.

“In SCD, deoxygenation causes rigid protein fibers to form within cells, altering their mechanical and physical properties,” he explains. “This field of work has largely informed my research which focuses on measuring the physical properties of RBCs (mass, volume, and density) in both oxygenated and deoxygenated states. These measurements aim to reveal patient-specific differences in fiber formation — the primary pathological event in SCD — potentially uncovering new therapeutic opportunities.”

Agboglo, who works in Professor Cullen Buie’s lab at MIT and John Higgins’ lab at MGH, says, “I left [the class] not only understanding more about molecular mechanics, but also understanding just fundamentals about thermodynamics and energy and things that I think will be useful as a scientist in general.”

In addition to lab and lecture time, 2.797/2.798 students also had the opportunity to work with the Museum of Science, Boston and generate open-source educational resources about the interplay between mechanics and biology. These resources are now available on the museum's website. 

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A high-fat diet sets off metabolic dysfunction in cells, leading to weight gain

Consuming a high-fat diet can lead to a variety of health problems — not only weight gain but also an increased risk of diabetes and other chronic diseases.

At the cellular level, hundreds of changes take place in response to a high-fat diet. MIT researchers have now mapped out some of those changes, with a focus on metabolic enzyme dysregulation that is associated with weight gain.

Their study, conducted in mice, revealed that hundreds of enzymes involved in sugar, lipid, and protein metabolism are affected by a high-fat diet, and that these disruptions lead to an increase in insulin resistance and an accumulation of damaging molecules called reactive oxygen species. These effects were more pronounced in males than females.

The researchers also showed that most of the damage could be reversed by giving the mice an antioxidant along with their high-fat diet.

“Under metabolic stress conditions, enzymes can be affected to produce a more harmful state than what was initially there,” says Tigist Tamir, a former MIT postdoc. “Then what we’ve shown with the antioxidant study is that you can bring them to a different state that is less dysfunctional.”

Tamir, who is now an assistant professor of biochemistry and biophysics at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, is the lead author of the new study, which appears today in Molecular Cell. Forest White, the Ned C. and Janet C. Rice Professor of Biological Engineering and a member of the Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, is the senior author of the paper.

Metabolic networks

In previous work, White’s lab has found that a high-fat diet stimulates cells to turn on many of the same signaling pathways that are linked to chronic stress. In the new study, the researchers wanted to explore the role of enzyme phosphorylation in those responses.

Phosphorylation, or the addition of a phosphate group, can turn enzyme activity on or off. This process, which is controlled by enzymes called kinases, gives cells a way to quickly respond to environmental conditions by fine-tuning the activity of existing enzymes within the cell.

Many enzymes involved in metabolism — the conversion of food into the building blocks of key molecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids — are known to undergo phosphorylation.

The researchers began by analyzing databases of human enzymes that can be phosphorylated, focusing on enzymes involved in metabolism. They found that many of the metabolic enzymes that undergo phosphorylation belong to a class called oxidoreductases, which transfer electrons from one molecule to another. Such enzymes are key to metabolic reactions such as glycolysis — the breakdown of glucose into a smaller molecule known as pyruvate.

Among the hundreds of enzymes the researchers identified are IDH1, which is involved in breaking down sugar to generate energy, and AKR1C1, which is required for metabolizing fatty acids. The researchers also found that many phosphorylated enzymes are important for the management of reactive oxygen species, which are necessary for many cell functions but can be harmful if too many of them accumulate in a cell.

Phosphorylation of these enzymes can lead them to become either more or less active, as they work together to respond to the intake of food. Most of the metabolic enzymes identified in this study are phosphorylated on sites found in regions of the enzyme that are important for binding to the molecules that they act upon or for forming dimers — pairs of proteins that join together to form a functional enzyme.

“Tigist’s work has really shown categorically the importance of phosphorylation in controlling the flux through metabolic networks. It’s fundamental knowledge that emerges from this systemic study that she’s done, and it’s something that is not classically captured in the biochemistry textbooks,” White says.

Out of balance

To explore these effects in an animal model, the researchers compared two groups of mice, one that received a high-fat diet and one that consumed a normal diet. They found that overall, phosphorylation of metabolic enzymes led to a dysfunctional state in which cells were in redox imbalance, meaning that their cells were producing more reactive oxygen species than they could neutralize. These mice also became overweight and developed insulin resistance.

“In the context of continued high fat diet, what we see is a gradual drift away from redox homeostasis towards a more disease-like setting,” White says.

These effects were much more pronounced in male mice than female mice. Female mice were better able to compensate for the high fat diet by activating pathways involved in processing fat and metabolizing it for other uses, the researchers found.

“One of the things we learned is that the overall systemic effect of these phosphorylation events led to, especially in males, an increased imbalance in redox homeostasis. They were expressing a lot more stress and a lot more of the metabolic dysfunction phenotype compared to females,” Tamir says.

The researchers also found that if they gave mice who were on a high-fat diet an antioxidant called BHA, many of these effects were reversed. These mice showed a significant decrease in weight gain and did not become prediabetic, unlike the other mice fed a high-fat diet.

It appears that the antioxidant treatment leads cells back into a more balanced state, with fewer reactive oxygen species, the researchers say. Additionally, metabolic enzymes showed a systemic rewiring and changed state of phosphorylation in those mice.

“They’re experiencing a lot of metabolic dysfunction, but if you co-administer something that counters that, then they have enough reserve to maintain some sort of normalcy,” Tamir says. “The study suggests that there is something biochemically happening in cells to bring them to a different state — not a normal state, just a different state in which now, at the tissue and organism levels, the mice are healthier.”

In her new lab at the University of North Carolina, Tamir now plans to further explore whether antioxidant treatment could be an effective way to prevent or treat obesity-associated metabolic dysfunction, and what the optimal timing of such a treatment would be.

The research was funded in part by the Burroughs Wellcome Fund, the National Cancer Institute, the National Institutes of Health, the Ludwig Center at MIT, and the MIT Center for Precision Cancer Medicine.

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$20 million gift supports theoretical physics research and education at MIT

A $20 million gift from the Leinweber Foundation, in addition to a $5 million commitment from the MIT School of Science, will support theoretical physics research and education at MIT.

Leinweber Foundation gifts to five institutions, totaling $90 million, will establish the newly renamed MIT Center for Theoretical Physics – A Leinweber Institute within the Department of Physics, affiliated with the Laboratory for Nuclear Science at the School of Science, as well as Leinweber Institutes for Theoretical Physics at three other top research universities: the University of Michigan, the University of California at Berkeley, and the University of Chicago, as well as a Leinweber Forum for Theoretical and Quantum Physics at the Institute for Advanced Study.

“MIT has one of the strongest and broadest theory groups in the world,” says Professor Washington Taylor, the director of the newly funded center and a leading researcher in string theory and its connection to observable particle physics and cosmology.

“This landmark endowment from the Leinweber Foundation will enable us to support the best graduate students and postdoctoral researchers to develop their own independent research programs and to connect with other researchers in the Leinweber Institute network. By pledging to support this network and fundamental curiosity-driven science, Larry Leinweber and his family foundation have made a huge contribution to maintaining a thriving scientific enterprise in the United States in perpetuity.”

The Leinweber Foundation’s investment across five institutions — constituting the largest philanthropic commitment ever for theoretical physics research, according to the Science Philanthropy Alliance, a nonprofit organization that supports philanthropic support for science — will strengthen existing programs at each institution and foster collaboration across the universities. Recipient institutions will work both independently and collaboratively to explore foundational questions in theoretical physics. Each institute will continue to shape its own research focus and programs, while also committing to big-picture cross-institutional convenings around topics of shared interest. Moreover, each institute will have significantly more funding for graduate students and postdocs, including fellowship support for three to eight fully endowed Leinweber Physics Fellows at each institute.

“This gift is a commitment to America’s scientific future,” says Larry Leinweber, founder and president of the Leinweber Foundation. “Theoretical physics may seem abstract to many, but it is the tip of the spear for innovation. It fuels our understanding of how the world works and opens the door to new technologies that can shape society for generations. As someone who has had a lifelong fascination with theoretical physics, I hope this investment not only strengthens U.S. leadership in basic science, but also inspires curiosity, creativity, and groundbreaking discoveries for generations to come.”

The gift to MIT will create a postdoc program that, once fully funded, will initially provide support for up to six postdocs, with two selected per year for a three-year program. In addition, the gift will provide student financial support, including fellowship support, for up to six graduate students per year studying theoretical physics. The goal is to attract the top talent to the MIT Center for Theoretical Physics – A Leinweber Institute and support the ongoing research programs in a more robust way.

A portion of the funding will also provide support for visitors, seminars, and other scholarly activities of current postdocs, faculty, and students in theoretical physics, as well as helping with administrative support.

“Graduate students are the heart of our country’s scientific research programs. Support for their education to become the future leaders of the field is essential for the advancement of the discipline,” says Nergis Mavalvala, dean of the MIT School of Science and the Curtis (1963) and Kathleen Marble Professor of Astrophysics.

The Leinweber Foundation gift is the second significant gift for the center. “We are always grateful to Virgil Elings, whose generous gift helped make possible the space that houses the center,” says Deepto Chakrabarty, head of the Department of Physics. Elings PhD ’66, co-founder of Digital Instruments, which designed and sold scanning probe microscopes, made his gift more than 20 years ago to support a space for theoretical physicists to collaborate.

“Gifts like those from Larry Leinweber and Virgil Elings are critical, especially now in this time of uncertain funding from the federal government for support of fundamental scientific research carried out by our nation’s leading postdocs, research scientists, faculty and students,” adds Mavalvala.

Professor Tracy Slatyer, whose work is motivated by questions of fundamental particle physics — particularly the nature and interactions of dark matter — will be the subsequent director of the MIT Center for Theoretical Physics – A Leinweber Institute beginning this fall. Slatyer will join Mavalvala, Taylor, Chakrabarty, and the entirety of the theoretical physics community for a dedication ceremony planned for the near future.

The Leinweber Foundation was founded in 2015 by software entrepreneur Larry Leinweber, and has worked with the Science Philanthropy Alliance since 2021 to shape its philanthropic strategy. “It’s been a true pleasure to work with Larry and the Leinweber family over the past four years and to see their vision take shape,” says France Córdova, president of the Science Philanthropy Alliance. “Throughout his life, Larry has exemplified curiosity, intellectual openness, and a deep commitment to learning. This gift reflects those values, ensuring that generations of scientists will have the freedom to explore, to question, and to pursue ideas that could change how we understand the universe.”

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MIT D-Lab students design global energy solutions through collaboration

This semester, MIT D-Lab students built prototype solutions to help farmers in Afghanistan, people living in informal settlements in Argentina, and rural poultry farmers in Cameroon. The projects span continents and collectively stand to improve thousands of lives — and they all trace back to two longstanding MIT D-Lab classes.

For nearly two decades, 2.651 / EC.711 (Introduction to Energy in Global Development) and 2.652 / EC.712 (Applications of Energy in Global Development) have paired students with international organizations and communities to learn D-Lab’s participatory approach to design and study energy technologies in low-resource environments. Hundreds of students from across MIT have taken the courses, which feature visits from partners and trips to the communities after the semester. They often discover a passion for helping people in low-resource settings that lasts a lifetime.

“Through the trips, students often gain an appreciation for what they have at home, and they can’t forget about what they see,” says D-Lab instructor Josh Maldonado ’23, who took both courses as a student. “For me, it changed my entire career. Students maintain relationships with the people they work with. They stay on the group chats with community members and meet up with them when they travel. They come back and want to mentor for the class. You can just see it has a lasting effect.”

The introductory course takes place each spring and is followed by summer trips for students. The applications class, which is more focused on specific projects, is held in the fall and followed by student travel over winter break.

“MIT has always advocated for going out and impacting the world,” Maldonado says. “The fact that we can use what we learn here in such a meaningful way while still a student is awesome. It gets back to MIT’s motto, ‘mens et manus’ (‘mind and hand’).”

Curriculum for impact

Introduction to Energy in Global Development has been taught since around 2008, with past projects focusing on mitigating the effects of aquatic weeds for fisherman in Ghana, making charcoal for cookstoves in Uganda, and creating brick evaporative coolers to extend the shelf life of fruits and vegetables in Mali.

The class follows MIT D-Lab’s participatory design philosophy in which students design solutions in close collaboration with local communities. Along the way, students learn about different energy technologies and how they might be implemented cheaply in rural communities that lack basic infrastructure.

“In product design, the idea is to get out and meet your customer where they are,” Maldonado explains. “The problem is our partners are often in remote, low-resource regions of the world. We put a big emphasis on designing with the local communities and increasing their creative capacity building to show them they can build solutions themselves.”

Students from across MIT, including graduates and undergraduates, along with students from Harvard University and Wellesley College, can enroll in both courses. MIT senior Kanokwan Tungkitkancharoen took the introductory class this spring.

“There are students from chemistry, computer science, civil engineering, policy, and more,” says Tungkitkancharoen. “I think that convergence models how things get done in real life. The class also taught me how to communicate the same information in different ways to cater to different people. It helped me distill my approach to what is this person trying to learn and how can I convey that information.”

Tungkitkancharoen’s team worked with a nonprofit called Weatherizers Without Borders to implement weatherization strategies that enhance housing conditions and environmental resilience for people in the southern Argentinian community of Bariloche.

The team built model homes and used heat sensing cameras to show the impact of weatherization strategies to locals and policymakers in the region.

“Our partners live in self-built homes, but the region is notorious for being very cold in the winter and very hot in the summer,” Tungkitkancharoen says. “We’re helping our partners retrofit homes so they can withstand the weather better. Before the semester, I was interested in working directly with people impacted by these technologies and the current climate situation. D-Lab helped me work with people on the ground, and I’ve been super grateful to our community partners.”

The project to design micro-irrigation systems to support agricultural productivity and water conservation in Afghanistan is in partnership with the Ecology and Conservation Organization of Afghanistan and a team from a local university in Afghanistan.

“I love the process of coming into class with a practical question you need to solve and working closely with community partners,” says MIT master’s student Khadija Ghanizada, who has served as a teacher’s assistant for both the introductory and applications courses. “All of these projects will have a huge impact, but being from Afghanistan, I know this will make a difference because it’s a land-locked country, it’s dealing with droughts, and 80 percent of our economy depends on agriculture. We also make sure students are thinking about scalability of their solutions, whether scaling worldwide or just nationally. Every project has its own impact story.”

Meeting community partners

Now that the spring semester is over, many students from the introductory class will travel to the regions they studied with instructors and local guides over the summer.

“The traveling and implementation are things students always look forward to,” Maldonado says. “Students do a lot of prep work, thinking about the tools they need, the local resources they need, and working with partners to acquire those resources.”

Following travel, students write a report on how the trip went, which helps D-Lab refine the course for next semester.

“Oftentimes instructors are also doing research in these regions while they teach the class,” Maldonado says. “To be taught by people who were just in the field two weeks before the class started, and to see pictures of what they’re doing, is really powerful.”

Students who have taken the class have gone on to careers in international development, nonprofits, and to start companies that grow the impact of their class projects. But the most immediate impact can be seen in the communities that students work with.

“These solutions should be able to be built locally, sourced locally, and potentially also lead to the creation of localized markets based around the technology,” Maldonado says. “Almost everything the D-Lab does is open-sourced, so when we go to these communities, we don’t just teach people how to use these solutions, we teach them how to make them. Technology, if implemented correctly by mindful engineers and scientists, can be highly adopted and can grow a community of makers and fabricators and local businesses.”

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New fuel cell could enable electric aviation

Batteries are nearing their limits in terms of how much power they can store for a given weight. That’s a serious obstacle for energy innovation and the search for new ways to power airplanes, trains, and ships. Now, researchers at MIT and elsewhere have come up with a solution that could help electrify these transportation systems.

Instead of a battery, the new concept is a kind of fuel cell — which is similar to a battery but can be quickly refueled rather than recharged. In this case, the fuel is liquid sodium metal, an inexpensive and widely available commodity. The other side of the cell is just ordinary air, which serves as a source of oxygen atoms. In between, a layer of solid ceramic material serves as the electrolyte, allowing sodium ions to pass freely through, and a porous air-facing electrode helps the sodium to chemically react with oxygen and produce electricity.

In a series of experiments with a prototype device, the researchers demonstrated that this cell could carry more than three times as much energy per unit of weight as the lithium-ion batteries used in virtually all electric vehicles today. Their findings are being published today in the journal Joule, in a paper by MIT doctoral students Karen Sugano, Sunil Mair, and Saahir Ganti-Agrawal; professor of materials science and engineering Yet-Ming Chiang; and five others.

“We expect people to think that this is a totally crazy idea,” says Chiang, who is the Kyocera Professor of Ceramics. “If they didn’t, I’d be a bit disappointed because if people don’t think something is totally crazy at first, it probably isn’t going to be that revolutionary.”

And this technology does appear to have the potential to be quite revolutionary, he suggests. In particular, for aviation, where weight is especially crucial, such an improvement in energy density could be the breakthrough that finally makes electrically powered flight practical at significant scale.

“The threshold that you really need for realistic electric aviation is about 1,000 watt-hours per kilogram,” Chiang says. Today’s electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries top out at about 300 watt-hours per kilogram — nowhere near what’s needed. Even at 1,000 watt-hours per kilogram, he says, that wouldn’t be enough to enable transcontinental or trans-Atlantic flights.

That’s still beyond reach for any known battery chemistry, but Chiang says that getting to 1,000 watts per kilogram would be an enabling technology for regional electric aviation, which accounts for about 80 percent of domestic flights and 30 percent of the emissions from aviation.

The technology could be an enabler for other sectors as well, including marine and rail transportation. “They all require very high energy density, and they all require low cost,” he says. “And that’s what attracted us to sodium metal.”

A great deal of research has gone into developing lithium-air or sodium-air batteries over the last three decades, but it has been hard to make them fully rechargeable. “People have been aware of the energy density you could get with metal-air batteries for a very long time, and it’s been hugely attractive, but it’s just never been realized in practice,” Chiang says.

By using the same basic electrochemical concept, only making it a fuel cell instead of a battery, the researchers were able to get the advantages of the high energy density in a practical form. Unlike a battery, whose materials are assembled once and sealed in a container, with a fuel cell the energy-carrying materials go in and out.

The team produced two different versions of a lab-scale prototype of the system. In one, called an H cell, two vertical glass tubes are connected by a tube across the middle, which contains a solid ceramic electrolyte material and a porous air electrode. Liquid sodium metal fills the tube on one side, and air flows through the other, providing the oxygen for the electrochemical reaction at the center, which ends up gradually consuming the sodium fuel. The other prototype uses a horizontal design, with a tray of the electrolyte material holding the liquid sodium fuel. The porous air electrode, which facilitates the reaction, is affixed to the bottom of the tray. 

Tests using an air stream with a carefully controlled humidity level produced a level of more than 1,500 watt-hours per kilogram at the level of an individual “stack,” which would translate to over 1,000 watt-hours at the full system level, Chiang says.

The researchers envision that to use this system in an aircraft, fuel packs containing stacks of cells, like racks of food trays in a cafeteria, would be inserted into the fuel cells; the sodium metal inside these packs gets chemically transformed as it provides the power. A stream of its chemical byproduct is given off, and in the case of aircraft this would be emitted out the back, not unlike the exhaust from a jet engine.

But there’s a very big difference: There would be no carbon dioxide emissions. Instead the emissions, consisting of sodium oxide, would actually soak up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This compound would quickly combine with moisture in the air to make sodium hydroxide — a material commonly used as a drain cleaner — which readily combines with carbon dioxide to form a solid material, sodium carbonate, which in turn forms sodium bicarbonate, otherwise known as baking soda.

“There’s this natural cascade of reactions that happens when you start with sodium metal,” Chiang says. “It’s all spontaneous. We don’t have to do anything to make it happen, we just have to fly the airplane.”

As an added benefit, if the final product, the sodium bicarbonate, ends up in the ocean, it could help to de-acidify the water, countering another of the damaging effects of greenhouse gases.

Using sodium hydroxide to capture carbon dioxide has been proposed as a way of mitigating carbon emissions, but on its own, it’s not an economic solution because the compound is too expensive. “But here, it’s a byproduct,” Chiang explains, so it’s essentially free, producing environmental benefits at no cost.

Importantly, the new fuel cell is inherently safer than many other batteries, he says. Sodium metal is extremely reactive and must be well-protected. As with lithium batteries, sodium can spontaneously ignite if exposed to moisture. “Whenever you have a very high energy density battery, safety is always a concern, because if there’s a rupture of the membrane that separates the two reactants, you can have a runaway reaction,” Chiang says. But in this fuel cell, one side is just air, “which is dilute and limited. So you don’t have two concentrated reactants right next to each other. If you’re pushing for really, really high energy density, you’d rather have a fuel cell than a battery for safety reasons.”

While the device so far exists only as a small, single-cell prototype, Chiang says the system should be quite straightforward to scale up to practical sizes for commercialization. Members of the research team have already formed a company, Propel Aero, to develop the technology. The company is currently housed in MIT’s startup incubator, The Engine.

Producing enough sodium metal to enable widespread, full-scale global implementation of this technology should be practical, since the material has been produced at large scale before. When leaded gasoline was the norm, before it was phased out, sodium metal was used to make the tetraethyl lead used as an additive, and it was being produced in the U.S. at a capacity of 200,000 tons a year. “It reminds us that sodium metal was once produced at large scale and safely handled and distributed around the U.S.,” Chiang says.

What’s more, sodium primarily originates from sodium chloride, or salt, so it is abundant, widely distributed around the world, and easily extracted, unlike lithium and other materials used in today’s EV batteries.

The system they envisage would use a refillable cartridge, which would be filled with liquid sodium metal and sealed. When it’s depleted, it would be returned to a refilling station and loaded with fresh sodium. Sodium melts at 98 degrees Celsius, just below the boiling point of water, so it is easy to heat to the melting point to refuel the cartridges.

Initially, the plan is to produce a brick-sized fuel cell that can deliver about 1,000 watt-hours of energy, enough to power a large drone, in order to prove the concept in a practical form that could be used for agriculture, for example. The team hopes to have such a demonstration ready within the next year.

Sugano, who conducted much of the experimental work as part of her doctoral thesis and will now work at the startup, says that a key insight was the importance of moisture in the process. As she tested the device with pure oxygen, and then with air, she found that the amount of humidity in the air was crucial to making the electrochemical reaction efficient. The humid air resulted in the sodium producing its discharge products in liquid rather than solid form, making it much easier for these to be removed by the flow of air through the system. “The key was that we can form this liquid discharge product and remove it easily, as opposed to the solid discharge that would form in dry conditions,” she says.

Ganti-Agrawal notes that the team drew from a variety of different engineering subfields. For example, there has been much research on high-temperature sodium, but none with a system with controlled humidity. “We’re pulling from fuel cell research in terms of designing our electrode, we’re pulling from older high-temperature battery research as well as some nascent sodium-air battery research, and kind of mushing it together,” which led to the “the big bump in performance” the team has achieved, he says.

The research team also included Alden Friesen, an MIT summer intern who attends Desert Mountain High School in Scottsdale, Arizona; Kailash Raman and William Woodford of Form Energy in Somerville, Massachusetts; Shashank Sripad of And Battery Aero in California, and Venkatasubramanian Viswanathan of the University of Michigan. The work was supported by ARPA-E, Breakthrough Energy Ventures, and the National Science Foundation, and used facilities at MIT.nano.

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The proud history and promising future of MIT’s work on manufacturing

MIT’s Initiative for New Manufacturing, announced today by President Sally A. Kornbluth, is the latest installment in a grand tradition: Since its founding, MIT has worked overtime to expand U.S. manufacturing, creating jobs and economic growth.

Indeed, one of the strongest through lines in MIT history is its commitment to U.S. manufacturing, which the Institute has pursued in economic good times and lean times, during wartime and in peacetime, and across scores of industries. MIT was founded in 1861 partly to improve U.S. industrial output, and has long devised special programs to bolster it — including multiple projects in recent decades aimed at renewing U.S. manufacturing.

“We want to deliberately design high-quality human-centered manufacturing jobs that bring new life to communities across the country,” Kornbluth wrote in a letter to the Institute community this morning, announcing the Initiative for New Manufacturing. She added: “I’m convinced that there is no more important work we can do to meet the moment and serve the nation now.”

“Embedded in MIT’s core ethos”

On one level, manufacturing is in MIT’s essential DNA. The Institute’s research and education has advanced industries from construction and transportation, to defense, electronics, biosciences, chemical engineering, and more. MIT contributions to management and logistics have also helped manufacturing firms thrive.

As Kornbluth noted in today’s letter, “Frankly, it’s not too much to say that the Institute was founded in 1861 to make manufacturing better.”

The historical record shows this, too. “There is no branch of practical industry, whether in the arts of construction, manufactures or agriculture, which is not capable of being better practiced, and even of being improved in its processes,” wrote MIT’s first president, William Barton Rogers, in a proposal for a new technical university, before MIT opened its doors.

“Manufacturing is embedded in MIT's core ethos,” says Christopher Love, a chemical engineering professor and one of the leads of the Initiative for New Manufacturing.

Beyond its everyday work, MIT has created many special projects to bolster manufacturing. In 1919, under the Institute’s third president, Richard Maclaurin, MIT developed the “Tech Plan,” engaging over 200 corporate sponsors, including AT&T and General Electric, to improve their businesses; period photos show MIT students examining a General Electric factory. (Similarly, today’s Initiative for New Manufacturing contains a “Factory Observatory” among its many facets, enabling Institute students to visit manufacturers.) 

“Made in America”

For a few decades after World War II, the U.S. had an especially large global lead in manufacturing. The sector also accounted for roughly a quarter of U.S. GDP for much of the 1950s, compared to about 12 percent in recent years. To be sure, other U.S. industries naturally grew; additionally, global manufacturing increased. But the U.S. still had around 20 million manufacturing jobs in 1979, compared to about 12.8 million today. The 1980s saw concerted job loss in manufacturing, and many believed the U.S. was losing its edge in key industries, including automaking and consumer electronics.

In response, MIT formed a task force on the subject, the MIT Commission on Industrial Productivity — and this group project created a bestselling book.

“Made in America: Regaining the Productive Edge,” co-authored by Michael Dertouzos, Richard Lester, and Robert Solow, sold over 300,000 copies after its publication in 1989. The book closely examined U.S. manufacturing practices across eight core industries and found overly short growth horizons for firms, suboptimal technology transfer, a neglect of human resources, and more.

Solow was an apt co-author: The MIT economist produced breakthrough research in the 1950s and 1960s, based on U.S. economic data, showing that technical advances of multiple kinds were responsible for most economic growth — to a much greater extent than, say, population growth or capital expansion. “Total factor productivity,” as Solow called it, included technological innovation, education, and skill-related changes.

Solow’s work won him a Nobel Prize in 1987 and illuminated how important technology and education are to economic expansion: Growth is not largely about making more of the same stuff, but creating new things.

The 21st Century: PIE, The Engine, and INM

This century, manufacturing has had period of growth, but heavy job losses in the first decade of the 2000s. That led to a flurry of new MIT manufacturing projects and research.

For one, an Institute task force on Production in the Innovation Economy (PIE), based on two years of empirical research, found considerable potential for U.S. advanced manufacturing, but also that the country needed to improve its capacity at turning innovations into deliverable products. These finding were detailed in the book “Making in America,” written by Institute Professor Suzanne Berger, a political scientist who has long studied the industrial economy.

MIT also participated in a government initiative, the Advanced Manufacturing Partnership, to help create high-tech economic hubs in parts of the U.S. that had suffered from de-industrialization, an effort that included developing new education initiatives for industrial workers.

And in 2016, MIT first announced a creative effort to spur manufacturing directly, in the form of The Engine, a startup accelerator, innovation hub, and venture fund located adjacent to campus in Cambridge. The Engine seeks to boost promising “tough tech” startups that need time to gain traction, and has invested in dozens of promising companies.

Additionally, MIT’s Work of the Future task force, a multi-year project issuing a final report in 2020, uncovered manufacturing insights while not being solely focused on them. The task fore found that automation will not wipe away colossal numbers of jobs — but that a key issue for the future is how technology can help workers to spur productivity, while not replacing them.

MIT continues to feature a variety of long-term programs and centers focused on manufacturing. The Initiative for New Manufacturing is an outgrowth of the Manufacturing@MIT working group; MIT’s Leaders for Global Operations (LGO) program offers a joint Engineering-MBA degree with a strong focus on manufacturing; the Department of Mechanical Engineering offers an advanced manufacturing concentration; and the Industrial Liason Program develops corporate partnerships with MIT.

All told, as Kornbluth wrote in today’s letter, “Manufacturing has been a throughline in MIT’s research and education … and it’s been an essential part of our service to the nation.” 

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MIT announces the Initiative for New Manufacturing

MIT today launched its Initiative for New Manufacturing (INM), an Institute-wide effort to reinfuse U.S. industrial production with leading-edge technologies, bolster crucial U.S. economic sectors, and ignite job creation.

The initiative will encompass advanced research, innovative education programs, and partnership with companies across many sectors, in a bid to help transform manufacturing and elevate its impact.

“We want to work with firms big and small, in cities, small towns and everywhere in between, to help them adopt new approaches for increased productivity,” MIT President Sally A. Kornbluth wrote in a letter to the Institute community this morning. “We want to deliberately design high-quality, human-centered manufacturing jobs that bring new life to communities across the country.”

Kornbluth added: “Helping America build a future of new manufacturing is a perfect job for MIT — and I’m convinced that there is no more important work we can do to meet the moment and serve the nation now.”

The Initiative for New Manufacturing also announced its first six founding industry consortium members: Amgen, Flextronics International USA, GE Vernova, PTC, Sanofi, and Siemens. Participants in the INM Industry Consortium will support seed projects proposed by MIT researchers, initially in the area of artificial intelligence for manufacturing.

INM joins the ranks of MIT’s other presidential initiatives — including The Climate Project at MIT; MITHIC, which supports the human-centered disciplines; MIT HEALS, centered on the life sciences and health; and MGAIC, the MIT Generative AI Impact Consortium.

“There is tremendous opportunity to bring together a vibrant community working across every scale — from nanotechnology to large-scale manufacturing — and across a wide-range of applications including semiconductors, medical devices, automotive, energy systems, and biotechnology,” says Anantha Chandrakasan, MIT’s chief innovation and strategy officer and dean of engineering, who is part of the initiative’s leadership team. “MIT is uniquely positioned to harness the transformative power of digital tools and AI to shape future of manufacturing. I’m truly excited about what we can build together and the synergies this creates with other cross-cutting initiatives across the Institute.”

The initiative is just the latest MIT-centered effort in recent decades aiming to expand American manufacturing. A faculty research group wrote the 1989 bestseller “Made in America: Regaining the Productive Edge,” advocating for a renewal of manufacturing; another MIT project, called Production in the Innovation Economy, called for expanded manufacturing in the early 2010s. In 2016, MIT also founded The Engine, a venture fund investing in hardware-based “tough tech” start-ups including many with potential to became substantial manufacturing firms.

As developed, the MIT Initiative for New Manufacturing is based around four major themes:

• Reimagining manufacturing technologies and systems: realizing breakthrough technologies and system-level approaches to advance energy production, health care, computing, transportation, consumer products, and more;
• Elevating the productivity and experience of manufacturing: developing and deploying new digitally driven methods and tools to amplify productivity and improve the human experience of manufacturing;
• Scaling new manufacturing: accelerating the scaling of manufacturing companies and transforming supply chains to maximize efficiency and resilience, fostering product innovation and business growth; and
• Transforming the manufacturing base: driving the deployment of a sustainable global manufacturing ecosystem that provides compelling opportunities to workers, with major efforts focused on the U.S.

The initiative has mapped out many concrete activities and programs, which will include an Institute-wide research program on emerging technologies and other major topics; workforce and education programs; and industry engagement and participation. INM also aims to establish new labs for developing manufacturing tools and techniques; a “factory observatory” program which immerses students in manufacturing through visits to production sites; and key “pillars” focusing on areas from semiconductors and biomanufacturing to defense and aviation.

The workforce and education element of INM will include TechAMP, an MIT-created program that works with community colleges to bridge the gap between technicians and engineers; AI-driven teaching tools; professional education; and an effort to expand manufacturing education on campus in collaboration with MIT departments and degree programs.

INM’s leadership team has three faculty co-directors: John Hart, the Class of 1922 Professor and head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering; Suzanne Berger, Institute Professor at MIT and a political scientist who has conducted influential empirical studies of manufacturing; and Chris Love, the Raymond A. and Helen E. St. Laurent Professor of Chemical Engineering. The initiative’s executive director is Julie Diop.

The initiative is in the process of forming a faculty steering committee with representation from across the Institute, as well as an external advisory board. INM stems partly from the work of the Manufacturing@MIT working group, formed in 2022 to assess many of these issues.

The launch of the new initiative was previewed at a daylong MIT symposium on May 7, titled “A Vision for New Manufacturing.” The event, held before a capacity audience in MIT’s Wong Auditorium, featured over 30 speakers from a wide range of manufacturing sectors.

“The rationale for growing and transforming U.S. manufacturing has never been more urgent than it is today,” Berger said at the event. “What we are trying to build at MIT now is not just another research project. … Together, with people in this room and outside this room, we’re trying to change what’s happening in our country.”

“We need to think about the importance of manufacturing again, because it is what brings product ideas to people,” Love told MIT News. “For instance, in biotechnology, new life-saving medicines can’t reach patients without manufacturing. There is a real urgency about this issue for both economic prosperity and creating jobs. We have seen the impact for our country when we have lost our lead in manufacturing in some sectors. Biotechnology, where the U.S. has been the global leader for more than 40 years, offers the potential to promote new robust economies here, but we need to advance our capabilities in biomanufacturing to maintain our advantage in this area.”

Hart adds: “While manufacturing feels very timely today, it is of enduring importance. Manufactured products enable our daily lives and manufacturing is critical to advancing the frontiers of technology and society. Our efforts leading up to launch of the initiative revealed great excitement about manufacturing across MIT, especially from students. Working with industry — from small to large companies, and from young startups to industrial giants — will be instrumental to creating impact and realizing the vision for new manufacturing.”

In her letter to the MIT community today, Kornbluth stressed that the initiative’s goal is to drive transformation by making manufacturing more productive, resilient, and sustainable.

“We want to reimagine manufacturing technologies and systems to advance fields like energy production, health care, computing, transportation, consumer products, and more,” she wrote. “And we want to reach well beyond the shop floor to tackle challenges like how to make supply chains more resilient, and how to inform public policy to foster a broad, healthy manufacturing ecosystem that can drive decades of innovation and growth.”

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Why are some rocks on the moon highly magnetic? MIT scientists may have an answer

Where did the moon’s magnetism go? Scientists have puzzled over this question for decades, ever since orbiting spacecraft picked up signs of a high magnetic field in lunar surface rocks. The moon itself has no inherent magnetism today. 

Now, MIT scientists may have solved the mystery. They propose that a combination of an ancient, weak magnetic field and a large, plasma-generating impact may have temporarily created a strong magnetic field, concentrated on the far side of the moon.

In a study appearing today in the journal Science Advances, the researchers show through detailed simulations that an impact, such as from a large asteroid, could have generated a cloud of ionized particles that briefly enveloped the moon. This plasma would have streamed around the moon and concentrated at the opposite location from the initial impact. There, the plasma would have interacted with and momentarily amplified the moon’s weak magnetic field. Any rocks in the region could have recorded signs of the heightened magnetism before the field quickly died away.

This combination of events could explain the presence of highly magnetic rocks detected in a region near the south pole, on the moon’s far side. As it happens, one of the largest impact basins — the Imbrium basin — is located in the exact opposite spot on the near side of the moon. The researchers suspect that whatever made that impact likely released the cloud of plasma that kicked off the scenario in their simulations.

“There are large parts of lunar magnetism that are still unexplained,” says lead author Isaac Narrett, a graduate student in the MIT Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS). “But the majority of the strong magnetic fields that are measured by orbiting spacecraft can be explained by this process — especially on the far side of the moon.”

Narrett’s co-authors include Rona Oran and Benjamin Weiss at MIT, along with Katarina Miljkovic at Curtin University, Yuxi Chen and Gábor Tóth at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, and Elias Mansbach PhD ’24 at Cambridge University. Nuno Loureiro, professor of nuclear science and engineering at MIT, also contributed insights and advice.

Beyond the sun

Scientists have known for decades that the moon holds remnants of a strong magnetic field. Samples from the surface of the moon, returned by astronauts on NASA’s Apollo missions of the 1960s and 70s, as well as global measurements of the moon taken remotely by orbiting spacecraft, show signs of remnant magnetism in surface rocks, especially on the far side of the moon.

The typical explanation for surface magnetism is a global magnetic field, generated by an internal “dynamo,” or a core of molten, churning material. The Earth today generates a magnetic field through a dynamo process, and it’s thought that the moon once may have done the same, though its much smaller core would have produced a much weaker magnetic field that may not explain the highly magnetized rocks observed, particularly on the moon’s far side.

An alternative hypothesis that scientists have tested from time to time involves a giant impact that generated plasma, which in turn amplified any weak magnetic field. In 2020, Oran and Weiss tested this hypothesis with simulations of a giant impact on the moon, in combination with the solar-generated magnetic field, which is weak as it stretches out to the Earth and moon.

In simulations, they tested whether an impact to the moon could amplify such a solar field, enough to explain the highly magnetic measurements of surface rocks. It turned out that it wasn’t, and their results seemed to rule out plasma-induced impacts as playing a role in the moon’s missing magnetism.

A spike and a jitter

But in their new study, the researchers took a different tack. Instead of accounting for the sun’s magnetic field, they assumed that the moon once hosted a dynamo that produced a magnetic field of its own, albeit a weak one. Given the size of its core, they estimated that such a field would have been about 1 microtesla, or 50 times weaker than the Earth’s field today.

From this starting point, the researchers simulated a large impact to the moon’s surface, similar to what would have created the Imbrium basin, on the moon’s near side. Using impact simulations from Katarina Miljkovic, the team then simulated the cloud of plasma that such an impact would have generated as the force of the impact vaporized the surface material. They adapted a second code, developed by collaborators at the University of Michigan, to simulate how the resulting plasma would flow and interact with the moon’s weak magnetic field.

These simulations showed that as a plasma cloud arose from the impact, some of it would have expanded into space, while the rest would stream around the moon and concentrate on the opposite side. There, the plasma would have compressed and briefly amplified the moon’s weak magnetic field. This entire process, from the moment the magnetic field was amplified to the time that it decays back to baseline, would have been incredibly fast — somewhere around 40 minutes, Narrett says.

Would this brief window have been enough for surrounding rocks to record the momentary magnetic spike? The researchers say, yes, with some help from another, impact-related effect.

They found that an Imbrium-scale impact would have sent a pressure wave through the moon, similar to a seismic shock. These waves would have converged to the other side, where the shock would have “jittered” the surrounding rocks, briefly unsettling the rocks’ electrons — the subatomic particles that naturally orient their spins to any external magnetic field. The researchers suspect the rocks were shocked just as the impact’s plasma amplified the moon’s magnetic field. As the rocks’ electrons settled back, they assumed a new orientation, in line with the momentary high magnetic field.

“It’s as if you throw a 52-card deck in the air, in a magnetic field, and each card has a compass needle,” Weiss says. “When the cards settle back to the ground, they do so in a new orientation. That’s essentially the magnetization process.”

The researchers say this combination of a dynamo plus a large impact, coupled with the impact’s shockwave, is enough to explain the moon’s highly magnetized surface rocks — particularly on the far side. One way to know for sure is to directly sample the rocks for signs of shock, and high magnetism. This could be a possibility, as the rocks lie on the far side, near the lunar south pole, where missions such as NASA’s Artemis program plan to explore.

“For several decades, there’s been sort of a conundrum over the moon’s magnetism — is it from impacts or is it from a dynamo?” Oran says. “And here we’re saying, it’s a little bit of both. And it’s a testable hypothesis, which is nice.”

The team’s simulations were carried out using the MIT SuperCloud. This research was supported, in part, by NASA. 

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MIT physicists discover a new type of superconductor that’s also a magnet

Magnets and superconductors go together like oil and water — or so scientists have thought. But a new finding by MIT physicists is challenging this century-old assumption.

In a paper appearing today in the journal Nature, the physicists report that they have discovered a “chiral superconductor” — a material that conducts electricity without resistance, and also, paradoxically, is intrinsically magnetic. What’s more, they observed this exotic superconductivity in a surprisingly ordinary material: graphite, the primary material in pencil lead.

Graphite is made from many layers of graphene — atomically thin, lattice-like sheets of carbon atoms — that are stacked together and can easily flake off when pressure is applied, as when pressing down to write on a piece of paper. A single flake of graphite can contain several million sheets of graphene, which are normally stacked such that every other layer aligns. But every so often, graphite contains tiny pockets where graphene is stacked in a different pattern, resembling a staircase of offset layers.

The MIT team has found that when four or five sheets of graphene are stacked in this “rhombohedral” configuration, the resulting structure can exhibit exceptional electronic properties that are not seen in graphite as a whole.

In their new study, the physicists isolated microscopic flakes of rhombohedral graphene from graphite, and subjected the flakes to a battery of electrical tests. They found that when the flakes are cooled to 300 millikelvins (about -273 degrees Celsius), the material turns into a superconductor, meaning that any electrical current passing through the material can flow through without resistance.

They also found that when they swept an external magnetic field up and down, the flakes could be switched between two different superconducting states, just like a magnet. This suggests that the superconductor has some internal, intrinsic magnetism. Such switching behavior is absent in other superconductors.

“The general lore is that superconductors do not like magnetic fields,” says Long Ju, assistant professor of physics at MIT. “But we believe this is the first observation of a superconductor that behaves as a magnet with such direct and simple evidence. And that’s quite a bizarre thing because it is against people’s general impression on superconductivity and magnetism.”

Ju is senior author of the study, which includes MIT co-authors Tonghang Han, Zhengguang Lu, Zach Hadjri, Lihan Shi, Zhenghan Wu, Wei Xu, Yuxuan Yao, Jixiang Yang, Junseok Seo, Shenyong Ye, Muyang Zhou, and Liang Fu, along with collaborators from Florida State University, the University of Basel in Switzerland, and the National Institute for Materials Science in Japan.

Graphene twist

In everyday conductive materials, electrons flow through in a chaotic scramble, whizzing by each other, and pinging off the material’s atomic latticework. Each time an electron scatters off an atom, it has, in essence, met some resistance, and loses some energy as a result, normally in the form of heat. In contrast, when certain materials are cooled to ultracold temperatures, they can become superconducting, meaning that the material can allow electrons to pair up, in what physicists term “Cooper pairs.” Rather than scattering away, these electron pairs glide through a material without resistance. With a superconductor, then, no energy is lost in translation.

Since superconductivity was first observed in 1911, physicists have shown many times over that zero electrical resistance is a hallmark of a superconductor. Another defining property was first observed in 1933, when the physicist Walther Meissner discovered that a superconductor will expel an external magnetic field. This “Meissner effect” is due in part to a superconductor’s electron pairs, which collectively act to push away any magnetic field.

Physicists have assumed that all superconducting materials should exhibit both zero electrical resistance, and a natural magnetic repulsion. Indeed, these two properties are what could enable Maglev, or “magnetic levitation” trains, whereby a superconducting rail repels and therefore levitates a magnetized car.

Ju and his colleagues had no reason to question this assumption as they carried out their experiments at MIT. In the last few years, the team has been exploring the electrical properties of pentalayer rhombohedral graphene. The researchers have observed surprising properties in the five-layer, staircase-like graphene structure, most recently that it enables electrons to split into fractions of themselves. This phenomenon occurs when the pentalayer structure is placed atop a sheet of hexagonal boron nitride (a material similar to graphene), and slightly offset by a specific angle, or twist. 

Curious as to how electron fractions might change with changing conditions, the researchers followed up their initial discovery with similar tests, this time by misaligning the graphene and hexagonal boron nitride structures. To their surprise, they found that when they misaligned the two materials and sent an electrical current through, at temperatures less than 300 millikelvins, they measured zero resistance. It seemed that the phenomenon of electron fractions disappeared, and what emerged instead was superconductivity.

The researchers went a step further to see how this new superconducting state would respond to an external magnetic field. They applied a magnet to the material, along with a voltage, and measured the electrical current coming out of the material. As they dialed the magnetic field from negative to positive (similar to a north and south polarity) and back again, they observed that the material maintained its superconducting, zero-resistance state, except in two instances, once at either magnetic polarity. In these instances, the resistance briefly spiked, before switching back to zero, and returning to a superconducting state.

“If this were a conventional superconductor, it would just remain at zero resistance, until the magnetic field reaches a critical point, where superconductivity would be killed,” Zach Hadjri, a first-year student in the group, says. “Instead, this material seems to switch between two superconducting states, like a magnet that starts out pointing upward, and can flip downwards when you apply a magnetic field. So it looks like this is a superconductor that also acts like a magnet. Which doesn’t make any sense!”

“One of a kind”

As counterintuitive as the discovery may seem, the team observed the same phenomenon in six similar samples. They suspect that the unique configuration of rhombohedral graphene is the key. The material has a very simple arrangement of carbon atoms. When cooled to ultracold temperatures, the thermal fluctuation is minimized, allowing any electrons flowing through the material to slow down, sense each other, and interact.

Such quantum interactions can lead electrons to pair up and superconduct. These interactions can also encourage electrons to coordinate. Namely, electrons can collectively occupy one of two opposite momentum states, or “valleys.” When all electrons are in one valley, they effectively spin in one direction, versus the opposite direction. In conventional superconductors, electrons can occupy either valley, and any pair of electrons is typically made from electrons of opposite valleys that cancel each other out. The pair overall then, has zero momentum, and does not spin.

In the team’s material structure, however, they suspect that all electrons interact such that they share the same valley, or momentum state. When electrons then pair up, the superconducting pair overall has a “non-zero” momentum, and spinning, that, along with many other pairs, can amount to an internal, superconducting magnetism.

“You can think of the two electrons in a pair spinning clockwise, or counterclockwise, which corresponds to a magnet pointing up, or down,” Tonghang Han, a fifth-year student in the group, explains. “So we think this is the first observation of a superconductor that behaves as a magnet due to the electrons’ orbital motion, which is known as a chiral superconductor. It’s one of a kind. It is also a candidate for a topological superconductor which could enable robust quantum computation.”

“Everything we’ve discovered in this material has been completely out of the blue,” says Zhengguang Lu, a former postdoc in the group and now an assistant professor at Florida State University. “But because this is a simple system, we think we have a good chance of understanding what is going on, and could demonstrate some very profound and deep physics principles.”

“It is truly remarkable that such an exotic chiral superconductor emerges from such simple ingredients,” adds Liang Fu, professor of physics at MIT. “Superconductivity in rhombodedral graphene will surely have a lot to offer.”     

The part of the research carried out at MIT was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy and a MathWorks Fellowship.

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