The power of “and” in energy and climate entrepreneurship

A supportive ecosystem is a cornerstone in entrepreneurship, according to Georgina Campbell Flatter, the CEO of Greentown Labs. “If we really want to be driving the most transformational technologies to scale at a speed in which we need them to happen for our planet, we need to be thinking about the ecosystem that we build around it.” During a seminar titled MITEI Presents: Advancing the Energy Transition, Campbell Flatter spoke of “the power of ‘and’” — the importance of multiple people, companies, and solutions collaborating to advance energy and climate solutions — and how that underpins Greentown Labs’ mission. “Innovation is a team sport. No one can go alone,” she said.

Creating these ecosystems is paramount at Greentown Labs, the world’s largest energy and climate incubator. “Through the lens of Greentown, we think about the power of ‘and’ through how we can work together better in the ecosystems where we have physical presence, but also how we can connect better across ecosystems,” said Campbell Flatter. The concept of "and" also exists in energy and climate, innovation and deployment, science and entrepreneurship, and competitiveness and collaboration, she said. Campbell Flatter feels this expansive lens is especially important in our increasingly polarized world.

At its core, Greentown Labs is a place to cluster innovators together. “We have to be very intentional about how we support and accelerate and help those entrepreneurs,” said Campbell Flatter. There is a science behind this “innovation infrastructure” that involves not only bringing creative minds together, but also removing friction so startups can move faster. The majority of this friction exists in the gaps between innovation and deployment, often referred to as the “valleys of death.” The first valley of death happens between idea and prototype; the second valley of death happens between prototype and the first commercial pilot. Greentown often asks where their ecosystems can be most helpful, which has led them to focus on helping entrepreneurs bridge that second valley, according to Campbell Flatter.

“Entrepreneurs at the stage where they can’t quite afford space on their own, and maybe it takes six to 12 months to figure out the permitting anyway, come to Greentown,” said Campbell Flatter. “We’re actively thinking about the customers, the capital, the infrastructure needs that you have in order for you to move your way through this second valley.”

Part of Greentown’s decision to focus on the second valley came from MIT’s unique ability to bring innovators across the first valley of death — an ability that Campbell Flatter deemed “truly world class.” Referencing startups born from universities like MIT and Harvard, Campbell Flatter said “they're far more likely to be successful and scale because of the ecosystem they’re surrounded in. You’re getting feedback constantly from your peers, you’re getting support and mentorship — that all matters for the ecosystem.”

MIT also helps build this ecosystem by attracting innovators to the area. “Thirty percent of our entrepreneurs at Greentown are coming from out of state and moving to Massachusetts,” she said. “One, because Greentown’s a great home for them, but two, because of MIT and the talent that they can source from the ecosystem, which they are well aware of, and the knowledge, IP [intellectual property], and credibility.”

Not only is the symbiotic relationship between MIT and Greentown a powerful entrepreneurial ecosystem, but MIT has also been instrumental in Campbell Flatter’s own journey toward her current body of work. After completing her master’s degree in materials science at Oxford University, she graduated from the MIT Technology and Policy Program. Campbell Flatter credited her time as a graduate student at MIT for giving her an appreciation for how hard it is to commercialize technology, and for the importance of ecosystems, and for giving her an early sense of how energy and climate would define this century. “I think it is really important to recognize the intentionality behind MIT’s commitment to energy and climate,” said Campbell Flatter.

While at MIT, she ran the third iteration of the MIT Clean Energy Prize, advocating for the inclusion of a non-renewables chapter of the prize because she saw “how important it was to continue to decarbonize and bring efficiencies to the traditional energy sectors while we work on all these amazing new energy initiatives.” Greentown has put this into practice through their wide network of industry partners. 

“I guess this early lesson I took from MIT was this idea that we must embrace the power of ‘and,’” said Campbell Flatter. “It slows innovation down when we don’t embrace and work together.”

This speaker series highlights energy experts and leaders at the forefront of the scientific, technological, and policy solutions needed to transform our energy systems. Visit the MIT Energy Initiative's events page for more information on this and additional events.

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MIT scientists build the world’s largest collection of Olympiad-level math problems, and open it to everyone

Every year, the countries competing in the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) arrive with a booklet of their best, most original problems. Those booklets get shared among delegations, then quietly disappear. No one had ever collected them systematically, cleaned them, and made them available, not for AI researchers testing the limits of mathematical reasoning, and not for the students around the world training for these competitions largely on their own.

Researchers at MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), and the company HUMAIN have now done exactly that.

MathNet is the largest high-quality dataset of proof-based math problems ever created. Comprising more than 30,000 expert-authored problems and solutions spanning 47 countries, 17 languages, and 143 competitions, it is five times larger than the next-biggest dataset of its kind. The work will be presented at the International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) in Brazil later this month.

What makes MathNet different is not only its size, but its breadth. Previous Olympiad-level datasets draw almost exclusively from competitions in the United States and China. MathNet spans dozens of countries across six continents, covers 17 languages, includes both text- and image-based problems and solutions, and spans four decades of competition mathematics. The goal is to capture the full range of mathematical perspectives and problem-solving traditions that exist across the global math community, not just the most visible ones.

"Every country brings a booklet of its most novel and most creative problems," says Shaden Alshammari, an MIT PhD student and lead author on the paper. "They share the booklets with each other, but no one had made the effort to collect them, clean them, and upload them online."

Building MathNet required tracking down 1,595 PDF volumes totaling more than 25,000 pages, spanning digital documents and decades-old scans in more than a dozen languages. A significant portion of that archive came from an unlikely source: Navid Safaei, a longtime IMO community figure and co-author who had been collecting and scanning those booklets by hand since 2006. His personal archive formed much of the backbone of the dataset.

The sourcing matters as much as the scale. Where most existing math datasets pull problems from community forums like Art of Problem Solving (AoPS), MathNet draws exclusively from official national competition booklets. The solutions in those booklets are expert-written and peer-reviewed, and they often run to multiple pages, with authors walking through several approaches to the same problem. That depth gives AI models a far richer signal for learning mathematical reasoning than the shorter, informal solutions typical of community-sourced datasets. It also means the dataset is genuinely useful for students: Anyone preparing for the IMO or a national competition now has access to a centralized, searchable collection of high-quality problems and worked solutions from traditions around the world.

"I remember so many students for whom it was an individual effort. No one in their country was training them for this kind of competition," says Alshammari, who competed in the IMO as a student herself. "We hope this gives them a centralized place with high-quality problems and solutions to learn from."

The team has deep roots in the IMO community. Sultan Albarakati, a co-author, currently serves on the IMO board, and the researchers are working to share the dataset with the IMO foundation directly. To validate the dataset, they assembled a grading group of more than 30 human evaluators from countries including Armenia, Russia, Ukraine, Vietnam, and Poland, who coordinated together to verify thousands of solutions.

"The MathNet database has the potential to be an excellent resource for both students and leaders seeking new problems to work on or looking for the solution to a difficult question," says Tanish Patil, deputy leader of Switzerland's IMO. "Whilst other archives of Olympiad problems do exist (notably, the Contest Collections forums on AoPS), these resources lack standardized formatting system, verified solutions, and important problem metadata that topics and theory require. It will also be interesting to see how this dataset is used to improve the performance of reasoning models, and if we will soon be able to reliably answer an important issue when creating novel Olympiad questions: determining if a problem is truly original."

MathNet also functions as a rigorous benchmark for AI performance, and the results reveal a more complicated picture than recent headlines about AI math prowess might suggest. Frontier models have made extraordinary progress: Some have reportedly achieved gold-medal performance at the IMO, and on standard benchmarks they now solve problems that would stump most humans. But MathNet shows that progress is uneven. Even GPT-5, the top-performing model tested, averaged around 69.3 percent on MathNet's main benchmark of 6,400 problems, failing nearly one-in-three Olympiad-level problems. And when problems include figures, performance drops significantly across the board, exposing visual reasoning as a consistent weak point for even the most capable models.

Several open-source models scored 0 percent on Mongolian-language problems, highlighting another dimension where current AI systems fall short despite their overall strength.

"GPT models are equally good in English and other languages," Alshammari says. "But many of the open-source models fail completely at less-common languages, such as Mongolian."

The diversity of MathNet is also designed to address a deeper limitation in how AI models learn mathematics. When training data skews toward English and Chinese problems, models absorb a narrow slice of mathematical culture. A Romanian combinatorics problem or a Brazilian number theory problem may approach the same underlying concept from a completely different angle. Exposure to that range, the researchers argue, makes both humans and AI systems better mathematical thinkers.

Beyond problem-solving, MathNet introduces a retrieval benchmark that asks whether models can recognize when two problems share the same underlying mathematical structure, a capability that matters both for AI development and for the math community itself. Near-duplicate problems have appeared in real IMO exams over the years because finding mathematical equivalences across different notations, languages, and formats is genuinely hard, even for expert human committees. Testing eight state-of-the-art embedding models, the researchers found that even the strongest identified the correct match only about 5 percent of the time on the first try, with models frequently ranking structurally unrelated problems as more similar than equivalent ones.

The dataset also includes a retrieval-augmented generation benchmark, testing whether giving a model a structurally related problem before asking it to solve a new one improves performance. It does, but only when the retrieved problem is genuinely relevant. DeepSeek-V3.2-Speciale gained up to 12 percentage points with well-matched retrieval, while irrelevant retrieval degraded performance in roughly 22 percent of cases.

Alshammari wrote the paper with Safaei, HUMAIN AI engineer Abrar Zainal, KAUST Academy Director Sultan Albarakati, and MIT CSAIL colleagues: master's student Kevin Wen SB ’25; Microsoft Principal Engineering Manager Mark Hamilton SM ’22, PhD ‘25; and professors William Freeman and Antonio Torralba. Their work was funded, in part, by the Schwarzman College of Computing Fellowship and the National Science Foundation.

MathNet is publicly available at mathnet.csail.mit.edu.

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Faces of MIT: Gabi Hott Soares

Gabi Hott Soares, associate director of student organizations and programming for the Student Organizations, Leadership, and Engagement Office (SOLE) in the Division of Student Life (DSL), empowers and equips students to lead and serve not only during their time at MIT, but also as they venture into their professional lives. With enthusiasm and a global mindset, she is dedicated to helping students thrive and reach their goals. 

Hott Soares was working in Brazil in corporate communication and social responsibility for heavy‑industry companies, including metals, mining, steel, and oil and gas, when she moved to the United States in 2017 to attend the Hult International Business School in Cambridge. After graduating, she hoped to fulfill her dream of working in the United States, and initially planned to continue in the same industry. Once she arrived in Boston, however, she saw the potential of working in higher education and identified it as a field she wanted to pursue. The challenge, Hott Soares noted, was that as an international professional, she did not have anyone stateside who could recommend her. 

Taking matters into her own hands, Hott Soares began attending meetups of Brazilian students and researchers in the Boston area to make connections. At one, she met an MIT student who invited her to volunteer as a marketing chair for his startup. Hott Soares worked with the startup for three months when she met another member of the team — the girlfriend of an MIT student — who mentioned that she was leaving a part‑time position within the MIT Spouses and Partners Connect (MS&PC) program. She asked Hott Soares if she would be interested in the role, and Hott Soares jumped at the opportunity to work at the Institute. 

In her first position at MIT, Hott Soares worked directly with Aaron Donaghey, manager of event scheduling and special projects in the Campus Activities Complex (CAC), in a temporary office assistant position supporting CAC and SOLE. Located on the fifth floor of the Stratton Student Center, she greeted students and provided resources related to both offices. Intent on learning as much as she could about how both offices operated, she dedicated time to familiarizing herself with their functions, which was no small task. CAC, for example, manages several event spaces, including Kresge Auditorium and the MIT Chapel, and oversees thousands of events each year. Meanwhile, SOLE advises hundreds of student organizations recognized by the Association of Student Activities.  

Six months later, when Hott Soares told Donaghey about her background and hope for a career at MIT, he encouraged her to apply to be the event support assistant within CAC. She was selected for the role, marking her first permanent role at MIT. On her path to continued growth at the Institute, and confident that new opportunities would come, she took advantage of the Institute’s career planning and development resources offered to employees. She worked one-on-one with Michele King Harrington, career development program administrator in human resources, and attended her workshops. King Harrington encouraged her to stay open to emerging opportunities, and in turn, Hott Soares immersed herself in learning everything she could about the Institute.  

In 2021, she was promoted to senior administrative assistant for what is now known as Student Engagement and Campus Activities within DSL. A year later, she became assistant director of student organizations and programming in SOLE. In 2023, she was again promoted to associate director of student organizations and programming and received a DSL Infinite Mile Award in the category “Here for the Students.” 

In her current role, Hott Soares leads the student events and programming boards area, which includes the Class Councils, Ring Committee, Senior Ball and Week Committees, and the Student Events Board. She interfaces daily with the student groups, helping them build community and plan activities and programs both on and off campus. While the skills she teaches students are applicable for their task at hand, they are also life skills that students will carry with them long after their time at MIT.  

Serving people and nurturing the MIT community are what Hott Soares enjoys most. She reminds students that amid a rigorous course load and demanding commitments, it’s important to have fun — especially when they are celebrating an event they worked hard to plan. “Their time at MIT is one of the most beautiful times of their lives,” she says. “I want them to remember that.” 

Soundbytes 

Q: What part of your work makes you feel most proud?

Hott Soares: I am proud of being able to work with the most brilliant minds in the world and still be myself. When I am interacting with students, we want to help each other, and we can create a relationship that is based on empathy, respect, trust, and humility. I am grateful that I get to work with so many wonderful people. 

Q: What advice would you give to a new staff member at MIT?

Hott Soares: Introduce yourself to people and take time to build relationships. Let others know what you do, what you want to do, and how you want to collaborate. Be humble, stay curious, and open to learning. MIT can feel fast-paced, but it is also a community full of people who genuinely care. You will thrive by being your true self!

Q: How would you describe the community at MIT?

Hott Soares: The people at MIT are amazing. Because I don’t have my family here, MIT is like home. The community is made up of people from different backgrounds and cultures, and I’ve always felt respected and like I belong. It is welcoming, safe, and compassionate. A shared sense of purpose, collaboration, creativity, and drive make MIT an inspiring place to work. 

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Three from MIT named 2026 Goldwater Scholars

Three MIT rising seniors have been selected to receive a 2026 Barry Goldwater Scholarship, including Deeksha Kumaresh in the School of Engineering and Anna Liu and Charlotte Myersin the School of Science. An estimated 5,000 college sophomores and juniors from across the United States were nominated for the scholarships, of whom only 454 were selected.

The Goldwater Scholarships have been conferred since 1989 by the Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation. These scholarships have supported undergraduates who go on to become leading scientists, engineers, and mathematicians in their respective fields.

Deeksha Kumaresh, a third-year biological engineering major, is an undergraduate researcher at the Hammond Lab. The Hammond Research Group at the MIT Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research focuses on the self-assembly of polymeric nanomaterials, with a major emphasis on the use of electrostatics and other complementary interactions to generate multifunctional materials with highly controlled architecture.

“Hands down, the mentors I’ve encountered have been the most significant part of my MIT journey,” Kumaresh says. “I’m also extremely grateful to the Hammond Lab, which has provided a supportive environment where I can make mistakes, learn, and grow as a researcher. I treasure the spontaneous conversations with lab members (about science or life) and their willingness to treat me seriously as an independent researcher, even as an undergraduate.”

Kumaresh is mentored by Paula Hammond, dean of the School of Engineering, Institute Professor, and professor of chemical engineering. Kumaresh's career goals are to pursue an MD/PhD. In the long term, she seeks to lead a bioengineering research lab to predict the efficacy and side effects of cancer therapies by developing systems-level computational and biological preclinical models.

“Receiving this scholarship has been incredibly meaningful, because it offered me the chance to reflect critically on my post-graduate goals and receive recognition for my journey for them,” Kumaresh says. “Earning this scholarship has welcomed me into a tight-knit community where I’ve already found so much guidance. Everyone is genuinely curious about everyone else’s interests and are eager to lend a hand however they can.”

Anna Liu, a third-year chemistry major, is an undergraduate researcher in the Radosevich Group. The overarching objective of the group’s research is to develop new catalysts, strategies, and reagents for synthetic chemistry. By designing and synthesizing new molecular compounds with unknown structure and function, the group hopes to learn more about the general principles enabling new chemical transformations.

Liu is mentored by professor of chemistry Alexander Radosevich. She plans to pursue a PhD in organic or inorganic chemistry and eventually lead research developing sustainable synthetic transformations informed by fundamental mechanistic and reactivity studies, and teach at the university level.

“Going through the Goldwater application process gave me a deeper understanding of my research project and helped me reflect on my intrinsic motivations to pursue research. I’m excited to use what I’ve learned to keep growing as a researcher,” Liu says. “I am so grateful for the countless mentors, teachers, labmates, classmates, friends, and family in my life who have believed in me, fostered my passion for chemistry, and taught me so much. Receiving this scholarship is truly a testament to their outstanding support!"

Charlotte Myers, a third-year physics and astronomy major, conducts research at the Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, where she applies machine learning to model galactic structure, and at the Center for Theoretical Physics, where she studies theoretical models of dark matter. Her research interests center on the physics of dark matter, which she approaches from multiple perspectives — from its distribution on galactic scales to particle-level models.

Myers is mentored by Lina Necib, an assistant professor in the Department of Physics. She plans to pursue a PhD in theoretical physics and conduct research in cosmology and astroparticle physics, with a focus on the fundamental physics of dark matter, and teach at the university level.

“I am very grateful to my research advisors, Professor Necib, Dr. Starkman, and Professor Slatyer, for their guidance and support in helping me develop as a researcher,” Myers says. “I find it deeply rewarding to engage with open questions in physics, and I am excited to continue pursuing this work in graduate school and beyond. Receiving this scholarship has given me both the resources and the confidence to continue on that path, even when progress is not always linear.”

The scholarship program honoring Senator Barry Goldwater was designed to identify, encourage, and financially support outstanding undergraduates interested in pursuing research careers in the sciences, engineering, and mathematics. The Goldwater Scholarship is the preeminent undergraduate award of its type in these fields.

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MIT takes top team honors in 86th Putnam Math Competition

In an outstanding performance at the 86th William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition, MIT’s team once again took the top spot for the sixth consecutive year. MIT secured four of the five Putnam Fellows, who are the five highest-ranking students, and the Elizabeth Lowell Putnam Prize, which is given to a woman whose “performance in the competition is particularly meritorious.”

The members of the winning team, consisting of junior Cheng Jiang, senior Luke Robitaille, and first-year Chunji Wang, were all awarded as Putnam Fellows alongside senior Zixiang Zhou, each receiving a $2,500 award for their performance. Notably, Robitaille is a four-time Putnam Fellow, having received the award for each year of his studies. For a second consecutive year, sophomore Jessica Wan was awarded the Elizabeth Lowell Putnam Prize and received $1,000.

Wan was also among the top 25 scorers, amongst 16 others from MIT: Warren Bei, Reagan Choi, Pico Gilman, Henry Jiang, Zhicheng Jiang, Papon Lapate, Gyudong Lee, Derek Liu, Maximus Lu, Krishna Pothapragada, Pitchayut Saengrungkongka, Qiao Sun, Allen Wang, Kevin Wang, and Yichen Xiao.

A legacy of success

“I was delighted to see how well the MIT students did on the Putnam exam this year, which reflects their hard work, talent, and enthusiasm,” says Professor Henry Cohn, who led class 18.A34 (Mathematical Problem Solving) this year, also informally known as the Putnam seminar.

MIT’s continued success in the Putnam competition stems from a variety of sources. Some of this is built on things like the seminar, where students get together to sharpen their skills by diving deep into tough problems and discussing solutions.

Cohn, a former participant in the Putnam, comments on the joy of teaching the seminar and seeing students’ progress. “When you spend a semester watching students present solutions to difficult problems, you start to understand how they think,” says Cohn. “It’s exciting to see them apply their abilities to new, difficult problems."

Professor Bjorn Poonen, who also led the seminar in previous years (and is a four-time Putnam Fellow), describes it as an opportunity to hone a spectrum of skills in competition preparation. “Knowing how to explain things well is really important for doing well on the Putnam and for everything else, and for this it really helps to have experience communicating with others, which is what the problem-solving seminar is all about.”

A shared passion for problem-solving

The students who take the Putnam thrive on all aspects of the competition, from the social to the exam itself.

“It’s not a school day, and we still get to do math,” Jiang describes his excitement for the competition. Indeed, getting to “do math” extends beyond formally sitting for the exam, to breaks and opportunities for discussion that are interspersed throughout the day. The students take each opportunity to come together as seriously as they do the competition, and it is this collective passion for problem-solving that builds a strong sense of community and brings students back year after year.

“The competition brings together hundreds of students from across campus representing many majors, years of graduation, and degrees of math contest experience, but what brings everyone together is a shared love of solving problems,” Cohn says. “You can see this in the clusters of students who stay to discuss the problems long after the exam has ended. Mathematics can sometimes feel like a solitary pursuit, but at this level, collaboration is key.”

Community complements the shared passion the math enthusiasts share for problems and puzzles. “You get a kind of satisfaction similar to when you get unstuck while doing a crossword puzzle and everything falls into place,” Poonen describes his own experience solving Putnam problems.

Consistency in certainty

The competition is also an opportunity to see familiar faces. Robitaille recalls his experiences in high school math olympiads, and highlights the friendly atmosphere at the Putnam. “Throughout college, I have stayed close with people I met at competitions,” Robitaille says. “There’s the whole background of times spent together, not just on contest day.”

An event for both community and challenge, the consistency and certainty of competition day is what brought Robitaille and Zhou back year after year. “Each time, you have a set amount of time to sit in the room and work on the problems,” Robitaille says. “If you were the type of person for whom that would be a fun thing, like me, it’s nice to have an opportunity to do it again occasionally.”

“It’s more fun than the real world, where everything is complicated,” Zhou adds with a smile.

The full list of 2025 winners can be found on the Putnam website.

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New chip can protect wireless biomedical devices from quantum attacks

As quantum computers advance, they are expected to be able to break tried-and-true security schemes that currently keep most sensitive data secure from attackers. Scientists and policymakers are working to design and implement post-quantum cryptography to defend against these future attacks.

MIT researchers have developed an ultra-efficient microchip that can bring post-quantum cryptography techniques to wireless biomedical devices, like pacemakers and insulin pumps. Such wearable, ingestible, or implantable devices are usually too power-constrained to implement these computationally demanding security protocols.

Their tiny chip, which is about the size of a very fine needle tip, also includes built-in protections against physical hacking attempts that can bypass encryption to steal user data, such as a patient’s social security number or device credentials. Compared to prior designs, the new technology is more than an order of magnitude more energy-efficient.

In the long run, the new chip could enable next-generation wireless medical devices to maintain strong security even as quantum computing becomes more prevalent. In addition, it could be applied to many types of resource-constrained edge devices, like industrial sensors and smart inventory tags.

“Tiny edge devices are everywhere, and biomedical devices are often the most vulnerable attack targets because power constraints prevent them from having the most advanced levels of security. We’ve demonstrated a very practical hardware solution to secure the privacy of patients,” says Seoyoon Jang, an MIT electrical engineering and computer science (EECS) graduate student and lead author of a paper on the chip.

Jang is joined on the paper by Saurav Maji PhD ’23; visiting scholar Rashmi Agrawal; EECS graduate students Hyemin Stella Lee and Eunseok Lee; Giovanni Traverso, an associate professor of mechanical engineering at MIT, a gastroenterologist at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, and an associate member of the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard; and senior author Anantha Chandrakasan, MIT provost and the Vannevar Bush Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science. The research was recently presented at the IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference.

Stronger security

A large percentage of wireless biomedical devices, like ingestible biosensors for health monitoring, currently lack strong protection due to the computational demands of existing security protocols, Jang says.

But the complexity of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) can increase power consumption by two or three orders of magnitude.

Implementing PQC is of paramount importance, since regulatory bodies like the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will soon begin phasing out traditional cryptography protocols in favor of stronger PQC algorithms. In addition, some industry leaders believe rapid advances in quantum hardware make PQC implementation even more urgent.

To bring these power-hungry PQC protocols to wireless biomedical devices, the MIT researchers designed a customized microchip, known as an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), that greatly reduces energy overhead while guaranteeing the highest level of security.

“PQC is very secure algorithmically, but making a device resilient against physical attacks usually requires additional countermeasures that pump up the energy consumption at least two or three times. We want our chip to be robust to both security threats in a very lightweight manner,” Jang says.

A multi-pronged approach

To accomplish these goals, the researchers incorporated several design features into the chip.

First, they implemented two different PQC schemes to enhance robustness and “future-proof” their device in case one scheme is later proven to be insecure. To boost energy efficiency, they applied techniques that enable the PQC algorithms to share as much of the chip’s computational resources as possible.

Second, the researchers designed a highly efficient, on-chip true random number generator. This device continually generates random numbers to use for secret keys, which is essential to implement PQC.

Their on-chip design improves energy efficiency and security over standard approaches that usually receive random numbers from an external chip.

Third, they implemented countermeasures that prevent a type of physical hacking attempt, called a power side-channel attack, but only on the most vulnerable parts of the PQC protocols.

In power side-channel attacks, hackers steal secret information by analyzing the power consumption of a device while it processes data. The MIT researchers added just enough redundancy to the PQC operations to ensure the chip is protected from these types of attacks.

Fourth, they designed an early fault-detection mechanism so the chip will abort operations early if it detects a voltage glitch.

Wireless biomedical devices often have erratic power supplies, so they are susceptible to glitches that can cause an entire security procedure to fail. The MIT approach saves energy by stopping the chip from running a doomed procedure to completion.

“At the end of the day, because of the techniques we utilized, we can apply these post-quantum cryptography primitives while adding nothing to the overhead, with the added benefit of robustness to side-channel attacks,” Jang says.

Their device achieved between 20 to 60 times higher energy efficiency than all other PQC security techniques they compared it to, with a more compact area than many existing chips.

“As we transition into post-quantum approaches, providing strong security for even the most resource-limited devices is essential. This work shows that robust cryptographic protection for biomedical and edge devices can be achieved alongside energy efficiency and programmability,” says Chandrakasan.

In the future, the researchers want to apply these techniques to other vulnerable applications and energy-constrained devices.

This research was funded, in part, by the U.S. Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health.

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How morality and ethics shaped India’s economic development

In a world leaning away from globalization, governments face a tough choice: Should they block dominant foreign companies to protect local businesses, or welcome them in hopes of fast-tracking economic growth and modernization? 

In his recently published book, “Traders, Speculators, and Captains of Industry: How Capitalist Legitimacy Shaped Foreign Investment Policy in India” (Harvard University Press, November 2025), Jason Jackson, associate professor in political economy and urban planning in the MIT Department of Urban Studies and Planning, explains that these policy decisions aren’t just math, but long-standing and often heated moral debates over how businesses should conduct themselves, and who they serve.

Jackson argues that morality has a long history in economics and deserves more attention because, while ever-present in economic policy discourse, moral beliefs are often under-recognized or underappreciated.

“India is an exemplary case of ways in which moral beliefs shape economic policy decisions,” says Jackson. “But at the same time, I think it’s representative of a general feature of capitalism. It’s the perfect case.”

Jackson’s focus on India for this book stems from his interest in industrial policy and the politics of international development. Multinational firms have long been a source of controversy. They are seen as bringing two crucial resources to developing countries: finance and technology. However, while multinationals are potentially valuable contributors to economic development through the mechanism of foreign direct investment (FDI), they can also be monopolistic, dominating local industries and displacing domestic firms.

This long-standing tension in foreign investment policy became the backdrop for several emerging markets in developing countries — Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) — in the early 2000s. India was growing at an extremely high level — 6-7 percent annually — and Indian companies were doing well, including those in industries that were seen as key to development, such as autos. Jackson wanted to understand why Indian companies were holding their own relative to foreign firms, which dominated more manufacturing in other places, and planned to focus on the period from the 1980s through the 2010s that coincides with the period of economic liberalization in India and, more broadly, with globalization. But while conducting field work, Jackson noticed that in describing how they made industrial policy decisions, Indian policymakers drew distinctions between firms that were fashioned in moral terms. There were some firms that policymakers believed would invest in technology and provide good jobs, and other firms — both foreign and domestic — seen as exploitative and not interested in engaging in activities that would advance economic growth and industrial transformation.

“I realized these distinctions had deep salience,” says Jackson. “My interlocutors would describe firms — especially foreign firms they saw as simply trading, or as exploitative — as ‘New East India’ companies, referencing the famous East India Company that was the governance authority in colonial India, but had been defunct for more than 150 years. That forced my research to become more historical, increasingly relying on archival work to make sense of these moralized distinctions between different types of business actors, whether foreign or domestic, and to understand how these beliefs became so powerful across Indian society.”

“Moral categories of capitalist legitimacy”

Jackson says there are several ways in which social scientists think that policymakers make decisions. One view considers the competing interest groups policymakers must negotiate with, in which case outcomes may depend on one group having more influence or power than others. Another approach assumes these individuals make decisions based on self-interest, particularly when their choices are perceived as corrupt.

“But what I found is that neither of these approaches gave enough credence to the ways in which policymakers in India grapple with quite technical and complex policy decisions regarding the type of development they want to promote in their country, and the types of companies they thought could help to achieve their development goals.” says Jackson. “Therefore, I was more interested in trying to understand what kind of ideas and beliefs animated their decision-making.”

What Jackson found was that Indian policymakers viewed both foreign firms and local Indian companies through what he terms “moral categories of capitalist legitimacy.” Would these firms invest in productive technologies? Would they provide good employment for the local population? Or would they be exploitative? These criteria were not only applied to multinational corporations. Even Indian family-controlled business groups were evaluated as to whether the gains accrued stayed within the confines of the extended family or whether they provided broader societal benefits. 

Coca-Cola goes to India

The story of Coca-Cola in India is an example of the tension experienced with regulating foreign investment where multinational companies were seen as exploitative. The company made its initial foray into India in the 1950s, and over the next two decades its reach became extensive. In the late 1970s, India’s Minister of Industry George Fernandes was visiting a village in Bihar — a state with one of the highest levels of poverty — when he asked for a glass of water. Instead, he was told the water was not suitable to drink, and was given Coca-Cola.

“This struck Fernandes as deeply problematic,” says Jackson. “He later recalled thinking that ‘after 30 years of freedom in India, our villages do not have clean drinking water, but they do have Coca-Cola — which, of course, is made with purified water, so safe to drink. How was this possible?’” Fernandes returned to his office in New Delhi determined to do something about it.

Just a few years earlier, India had passed a law, the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA), which required foreign companies to dilute their equity to no more than 40 percent. The law was explicitly designed to encourage technology transfer, but Coca-Cola had not complied. Fernandes told Coca-Cola that it had to take on an Indian partner or it would have to leave. Coca-Cola chose the latter. In the following year, IBM was also kicked out of India when it similarly balked at complying with FERA and sharing its technology.

“These companies were very much seen in the mold of the East India Co.,” says Jackson. “A firm comes from abroad and extracts resources from India while giving little benefit to the country. These are all very clearly morally coded beliefs that played a crucial role in these policy decisions.”

With Coca-Cola out of India, the beverage market became wide open, and several Indian companies emerged. Thums Up, an Indian cola brand — founded by Ramesh Chauhan ’62 — took off and became the dominant cola by the 1980s. Chauhan developed its own unique formula independently.

In 1991, India accelerated its economic liberalization, especially around FDI, and FERA’s standards were diluted. Coca-Cola returned to India, again without a partner. Other major brands, including Pepsi, had also entered the market. By then, Thums Up had a market share in India of well over 80 percent, but, concerned with its ability to compete in a war between the deep-pocketed American multinational giants, Thums Up sold out to Coca-Cola for $60 million in 1993, a figure that was later deemed to be small.

Trader, speculator, or captain of industry?

Jackson says that in India, there were two competing interpretations of this story. In one version, Fernandes kicking out a global multinational firm was seen as a developing country establishing its economic sovereignty by making a bold policy decision and “risking all kind of geopolitical blowback that might follow from the U.S.,” says Jackson. “In this view, the Indian government’s bold move allowed local entrepreneurs and local companies like Chauhan and Thums Up to emerge.”

Yet an important counter narrative emerged that challenged the view that companies like Thums Up and figures like Chauhan are enterprising entrepreneurs.

“Maybe they just took advantage of protectionism to form a company and make some money,” says Jackson. “So rather than being an intrepid captain of industry, observers wondered whether maybe Chauhan was ‘simply a trader’ who took advantage of policy protection, but sold out as soon as the market became competitive.”

Later developments added some credibility to this view. Ironically, Coca-Cola was unable to remove Thums Up and Limca, another soda brand from Chauhan’s company, from its product lineup, and both remained extremely popular and widely consumed. This suggested to many observers that Thums Up could have survived the cola wars had it not sold out to the American multinational. The public had acquired a taste for the distinctly Indian beverages that Chauhan had created.

“This narrative encapsulates this kind of tension policymakers face: If we provide policy support to our enterprising entrepreneurs and they thrive, will they also do well for the country? Or are they simply opportunists who will take advantage of policy support in ways that benefit themselves but have little broader benefits to the country,” says Jackson.

This episode was just one of dozens of instances of conflicts between Indian companies and multinational firms in the liberalizing 1990s and 2000s, which the government was often compelled to adjudicate. Throughout this period, the question persisted: How would policymakers identify the business figures who could be agents of industrial development and economic transformation, whether foreign or domestic? 

Ramesh Chauhan for one continued an enterprising path. He turned his attention to the bottled water industry in India and his brand — Bisleri — remains one of the country’s leading bottled water brands today.

de MIT News https://ift.tt/37rhlqV